PD 

3109 
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i 


IC-NRLF 


$B  311  L4at 


U^pt^H 


.^  .^, 

iniversity  c 

nia. 

FROM  thp:  library  of 

DR.    FRANCIS     LIEBER, 

Professor  of  History  and  Law  in  Columbia  College,  ^ 

'ow  York. 

THE  GIFT  OF 

MICHAEL    REESE, 

Of  San  Francisco. 

1873. 

4» 

mr: 


ELEMENTS 


DANISH  AND  SWEDISH  LANGUAGES. 


JOHN     GIERL  O W. 


CAMBRIDGE: 
MET CALF     AND     COMPANY, 

PRINTERS    TO    THE    UNIVERSITY. 

1847. 


PREFACE 


The  connection  which  subsists  between  nations  in 
the  affairs  of  government,  in  commerce,  and  domestic 
concerns,  renders  a  knowledge  of  the  living  languages 
to  many  useful  and  agreeable  ;  to  others,  very  neces- 
sary. 

The  work  here  presented  to  the  public  is  designed 
to  afford  a  means  for  attaining  a  considerable  knowledge 
of  the  Danish  and  Swedish  languages,  which  hitherto 
have  been  but  too  much  neglected,  considering  the  rich- 
ness of  their  literature. 

In  laying  this  work  before  the  eye  of  an  enlightened 
public,  I  trust  that  I  shall  obtain  its  pardon,  if  it  has 
not  arrived  at  that  degree  of  perfection  I  sincerely 
wish  for.  But  as  perfection  is  not  the  property  of  man, 
and  as  the  pen  of  a  foreigner  is  often  apt  to  err,  I  most 
respectfully  crave  the  kind  indulgence   of  those  who 


IV  PREFACE. 

may  peruse   my  work,  should  it  not  meet  with  their 
approbation. 

Should  this  work  be  encouraged  with  a  rapid  sale, 
I  shall  shortly  publish  a  Danish  and  Swedish  reader, 
in  which  I  shall  endeavour  to  make  good  the  errors  I 
may  have  committed  in  this,  my  present  work. 

J.  G. 
Lowell,  Mass.,  Jan.  1,  1847. 


DANISH   GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ALPHABET. 


The  Danish  language  is  expressed  by  means  of  twenty- 
eight  letters. 


Letters. 

95,  b, 

e,  c, 

3,i,    . 
3,;, 
«,f,  . 
i,  i, 
5m,  ra, 
31,  n, 
£>,  0,   , 

=0,  q, 
9l,v, 


§  1.  Simple  Letters. 


Names. 

Ah, 
Bay, 

Say, 

Day, 

Eh, 

Eff,   . 

Ghay, 

Hoh, 

Ee, 

Yod, 

Koh, 

Ell,     . 


English  repre- 
sentation. 


.     .     .  A,  a. 

B,  b. 

.    .    .  C,c. 

...  D,  d. 

.     .    .  E,  e. 

F.f. 

.    .     .  G,g. 

...  H,  h. 

.     .    .  I,i. 

.     .     .  J,j. 

.     .    .  K,  k. 

...  L,l. 

Emm M,  m. 


Enn, 
O,     . 
Pay, 
Koo, 
Err, 


N,  n. 
0,o. 
P,p. 

a,q. 

R,r. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


@,  f,  ^, 

3/ J,    . 
2(a,  aa, 


Ess, S,  s, 

Tay, T,t. 

Oo, U,  u. 

Vay, V,  V. 

Ex, X,  X. 

Ipsilon,    ....  Y,  y. 

Sett, Z,  z. 

Au. 
Ay. 
0. 


^  2.  Compound  Letters. 


Letters.  Names. 

d), Say-hoh, 

ff, Eff-eff,      . 

fi, Eff-eff-ee, 

ff(, Eff-eff-ell, 

ji, Eff-ee,    . 

f[, Eff-ell,       . 

a, Ell-ell,     . 

ft, Ess-ee, 

(I, Ess-ell,    . 

If, Ess-ess,     , 

§, Ess-ess, 

]\, Ess-tay,     . 


English  repre- 
sentation. 

.     ch. 

ff. 

.     .    ffi. 

.       ffl. 

.     .     fi. 

fl. 

.     .     11. 

.       fi. 

.     .     fl. 

.     fl: 

,     .     fs. 
.        fl;. 


CHAPTER  II. 

PRONUNCIATION. 


§  3.  Sounds  op  Simple  Vowels. 

a.     Sounded  nearly  as  a  in  the  English  word  /ar ;  e.  g. 
ittmagt,  omnipotence  ;  mange,  many. 


PRONUNCIATION.  3 

e.     Nearly  like  a  in  the  English  word  fate ;  e.  g,  Sijig^el), 

eternity  ;  mcgCt,  much.     (See  §  4,  Obs.  1.) 
t.      Like   the  English  e  in  me ;  e.  g.  "iime,  hour  ;  ibelig, 

perpetual.  . ,      -         .^ 

0.     Like  the  English  o  in  more;  e.  g.  5!D?0t)er,  mother;  Ovttt, 

worm, 
tt.     Like  the  English  u  in  rule ;  e.  g.  ®^l^,  God  ;  llglltcfig, 

profane. 
1^.     As  the  French  u   in  du;  e.   g.   ©^n,  sight;  ^bttt^g, 

humble. 
C^C(,  Nearly  as  the  English  o  in  long ;  e.  g.  2(ant)/  ghost ; 

Uaa,  blue.  .    w  -,. 

CC.     As  the  English  a  in  /amc ;  e.  g.  2Sve,  honor  ;  fcccre,  to 

carry. 
0.     As  the  French  eu  in  /cm;  e.g.  ^V&^f  bread;  0t>C/ 

desert. 

Observations. 

§  4.  055.  1.  The  Danish  language  has  a  loud  and  a  S2- 
/ew^  e.  It  is  called  loud,  when  sounded  distinctly.  The  si- 
lent e  serves  to  denote  that  a  monosyllabic  word,  or  the  last 
syllable  in  a  word,  which,  according  to  the  pronunciation, 
ends  in  e,  t,  0,  u,  I),  Of,  &,  and  aci,  has  the  accent.  It  must, 
therefore,  notwithstanding  it  is  not  heard,  still  be  written 
in  the  following  cases  :  — 

(a.)  In  the  accented  syllable  at  the  end  of  nouns  consist- 
ing of  more  than  one  syllable,  which  in  the  pronunciation 
end  in  i,  and  monosyllabic  nouns,  which  in  the  pronunci- 
ation end  in  t,  i,  0,  t),  «,  &,  and  dd ;  e.  g.  SSetkric,  beg- 
ging ;  &nn,  snow  ;  SSie,  bee  ;  ff oe,  cow ;  ©fi;e,  sky ;  "ivccc, 
tree  ;  9}T^e,  maiden  ;  2(ac,  brook. 

(6.)  In  the  accented  syllable  at  the  end  of  an  adjective, 
which  in  the  pronunciation  ends  in  i,  0,  «,  I),  and  aa,  in 
the  plural,  and  in  the  singular  with  the  definite  article ;  e.  g. 
fric  SOTcent),  free  men ;  bh;e  ^id^,  bashful  maidens ;  fmie 


4  PRONUNCIATION. 

Savk,  cunning  fellows ;  gvaae  ^dtU,  gray  hats ;  likewise, 
Den  fvie  9}?ant),  the  free  man  ;  t)CU  fcli;e  ^i^(,  the  bashful 
maiden  ;  t)Cn  fuue  ^avf,  the  shrewd  fellow ;  t>cn  gravtc  ^at, 
the  gray  hat.  With  the  indefinite  article,  on  the  contrary, 
in  the  singular,  these  adjectives  must  be  written  without  the 
sile?it  e ;  consequently,  en  fri  9}Iant),  a  free  man  ;  en  bft) 
spige,  a  bashful  maiden  ;  &c. 

(c.)  In  the  last  syllable  of  infinitives  contracted  of  two 
syllables,  and  therefore  accented,  which  in  the  pronunci- 
ation ends  in  C,  i,  0,  X),  da,  and  & ;  e.  g.  at  fee,  to  see ;  at 
frie,  to  free ;  at  tree,  to  believe ;  at  fpe,  to  sow ;  at  gaae, 
to  go  ;  at  Q)JOftf  to  bark. 

{d.)  In  the  accented  syllable  in  the  end  of  imperatives, 
which  in  the  pronunciation  ends  in  e,  i,  0,  U,  \),  &,  and  aa ; 
e.  g.  fee!  behold!  .He  I  remain!  tvoe!  believe!  tvnei  threat- 
en !  f[i;e  !  fly  !  \>i^z  I  die  !  ^aat  \  go  ! 

(e.)  In  the  accented  syllable  of  imperfects,  which  in  the 
pronunciation  ends  in  0  or  aa,  and  in  the  plurals  of  pres- 
ents, which  in  the  pronunciation  end  in  aa*^  e.  g.  jeg  loe, 
I  smiled;  jeg  Uae,  I  laid;  t?i  maae,  we  must;  t)i  faae,  we 
receive . 

The  singular  of  the  verb,  on  the  contrary,  must  be  writ- 
ten without  the  C ;  e.  g.  jeg  maa,  I  must. 

§  5.  Ohs,  2.  All  the  vowels  are  sometimes  long,  and 
sometimes  short,  that  is,  the  same  sound  being  more  or  less 
protracted  \  e.  g.  a  is  long  in  ®at)e,  gift,  and  short  in  ©anD, 
sand.  The  distinction,  however,  has  reference  only  to  ac- 
cented syllables. 

^  6.  Ohs.  3.  When  two  vowels  occur  together,  they 
must  both  be  sounded  ;  as,  beeM^e,  to  swear  to  ;  §iel>,  print 
of  footsteps. 

^  7.     Sounds  of  the  Diphthongs. 

at.  Sounded  as  a2  in  the  English  word  aisle;  e.  g.  CDtai, 
the  month  of  May  ;  ^ax,  a  shark. 


PRONUNCIATION.  5 

au.  Nearly  as  ou  in  the  English  word  our ;  e.  g.  ©aug,  a 

saw ;  ^aw^C,  garden, 
eu  Like  ei  in  the  English  word  height;  e.  g.  feig,  cowardly  ; 

©pcif,  mirror. 
en.  An  intermediate  sound   between  that  of  ei  and  that  of 

the  following  diphthong  (oi) ;  e.  g.  ffuvopa,  Europe. 
Oi.  Like  the  English  oi  in  voice;  e.  g.  SSoie,  bilboes ;  ft'oie, 

hammock. 
OU.  This  diphthong  sounds,  when  in  a  word,  like  ow  in  the 

English  word  owl;  e.  g.  spoul,  Paul ;  3!0llg,  rope. 
&'u  Is  sounded  nearly  as  oi ;  e.  g.  @t-ai,  noise  ;  ip'xz,  eye. 

Observation. 

^  8.  The  three  diphthongs  oi,  CU,  -O^i,  are  sounded  nearly 
alike.  The  first  is  the  simple  English  oi  in  voice ;  the  sec- 
ond is  somewhat  closer;  the  last  is  more  broad,  pronounced 
with  the  mouth  widely  opened.  It  is,  however,  difficult 
for  any  one  but  a  native  to  obtain  a  correct  pronunciation 
of  these  diphthongs. 

§  9.     Sounds  of  the  Simple  Consonants. 

b.  Sounded  as  in  the  English  word  baj/ ;  e.  g.  95v-0^^, 
bread ;  except  at  the  end  of  words,  where  it  is  sound- 
ed hard,  like  bp;  e.  g.  Xab,  loss. 

C.  Like  kj  unless  it  stands  before  e,  i,  i;,  OJ,  JOf,  when  it  is 
sounded  as  5 ;  e.  g.  £a)tauie,  chestnut,  pronounce  Ka- 
stanie;  CitVOn,  lemon,  pronounce  Sitron, 

^  As  in  the  English  word  do ;  e.  g.  Sauff,  Danish.  (See 
§  10,  Obs.  1.) 

f.  As  in  the  English  word  off;  e.  g.  §0^,  foot ;  ofte,  often. 

g.  As  the  English  g  in  go ;  e.  g.  ®al)e,  gift ;  Sag,  day. 

{;,  As  the  English  h  in  he ;  e.  g.  ^\X^,  house  ;  ^ig^CD,  like- 
ness ;  except  when  it  stands  before  )  and  \).  (See 
§  11,  Obs.  2.) 

1# 


O  PRONUNCIATION. 

;.  Sounded  like  y  in  the  English  word  yet ;  e.  g.  3agt, 
hunting ;  ;eg,  I. 

t  As  in  English,  but  is  distinctly  heard  before  n ;  e.  g. 
^nCC,  knee ;  fnccfte,  to  break. 

L    As  in  English  j  e.  g.  iit),  life  ;  SIl^,  lead. 

ttl.  As  in  English ;  e.  g.  SDTcuneffe,  man  ;  km,  lamb. 

at.    As  in  English  ;  e.  g.  naar,  when ;  fait,  can. 

p.    As  in  English;  e.  g.  spvop,  cork;  pv^^e,  to  prove. 

q.  Sounded  nearly  as  ^ ;  e.  g.  X).\)a(,  distress ;  O.^if?,  twig. 
This  letter  is  always  followed  by  the  letter  t). 

r.  This  letter  is,  in  the  Danish  language,  rolled,  if  rolled 
at  all,  so  slightly,  and  in  so  peculiar  a  manner,  that  it 
can  hardly  be  heard,  and  its  sound  can  only  be  acquir- 
ed by  long  practice.  Its  sound  comes  somewhat  near 
to  the  r  in  the  English  word  warm;  e.  g.  SHet,  jus- 
tice ;  var,  rare. 

f.  As  the  English  s  in  soul;  e.  g.  ©of,  sun;  9te||,  re- 
mainder. 

t.    As  in  English  ;  e.  g.  3:i^,  time  ;  tCCt,  tight. 

t).  As  in  English;  e.  g.  ^ife,  song;  ^ot)e,  to  hazard.  (See 
§13,  Obs.  4.) 

)t.    As  the  English  x  \njix  ;  e.  g.  ft]l*erc,  to  disappoint. 

J.    As  in  English ;  e.  g.  ^\\x,  ornament ;  jittrc,  to  tremble. 

Observations. 

§  10.  Obs.  1.  The  sound  of  the  letter  I)  is  exceeding- 
ly difficult  to  acquire.  It  is  only  when  beginning  a  word 
that  it  is  sounded  like  the  English  d  ;  when  beginning  a  syl- 
lable, or  when  ending  a  word,  it  has  a  sound  so  peculiar  as 
not  to  be  represented  here,  and  it  is  only  by  the  instruction 
of  a  native,  and  by  long  practice,  that  it  can  be  acquired.* 

*  The  letter  t)  must  not  be  written  in  words  in  the  etymology  of  which 
is  found  no  ground  for  it ;  e.  g.  in  g^^anft,  French  ;  ©tceff,  Greek  j  a^fHtt 
(from  at>ffit(er,  to  separate)  ;  fat  (from  fcctter,  to  sit).  On  the  contrary,  it 
must  be  written  in  gobtv  ont>t/  for^abt,  because  these  words  are  formed  of 
got>/  good;  oitb/  evil,  l;at)et,  to  hate. 


PRONUNCIATION.  7 

§  11.  Obs,  2.  When  the  letter  i)  stands  before  j  and  t>/ 
it  loses  its  sound  ;  e.  g.  J^j^tp,  help ;  f)\>'\tf,  white. 

^  12.  Obs,  3.  In  words  derived  from  the  Latin,  when 
t  is  followed  by  a  vowel,  it  is  generally  sounded  like  ^;  e.  g. 
^OVticu,  portion,  sound  porsion. 

§  13.  Obs.  4.  The  letter  \)  when  followed  by  the  let- 
ter t  is  always  sounded  like  f ;  e.  g.  ()at?t,  had  ;  Iat)t,  low ; 
pronounce  haft^  laft, 

§  14.     Sounds  of  Combined  Consonants. 

d^  occurs  only  in  foreign  words  and  proper  names,  and  is 
pronounced  both  as  k  and  as  sh  in  the  English  word 
sheen;  e.  g.  C^avacteei*,  character;  ^{j<xx^'\z,  lint;  in 
the  former  it  is  sounded  as  A:,  and  in  the  latter  as  5^. 
This  is  also  the  case  when  d^  is  connected  with  other 
vowels,  and  thus  it  is  only  by  practice  that  its  sound 
can  be  correctly  acquired. 

ff.  When  occur ing,  each  letter  is  distinctly  sounded  ;  e.  g. 
fHiffef,  rifle  ;  if\X^t,  to  push. 

Observations, 

§  15.  Obs.  1.  In  all  cases  not  noticed  above,  when 
two  or  more  consonants  occur  together,  each  is  distinctly 
sounded. 

§  16.  Obs.  2.  %{j  has  lost  its  original  sound  in  the 
Danish  language,  and  when  it  occurs,  it  is  sounded  as  t 
alone. 

Accent. 

§  17.  By  this  is  meant  the  stress  laid  on  a  particular 
syllable  in  a  word.  In  a  proper  use  of  language,  it  should 
be  distinguished  from  emphasis;  the  latter  signifying  stress 
laid  on  a  word  or  words  on  account  of  their  particular  im- 
port in  a  sentence.     The  following  general  rules  should  be 


9  ORTHOGRAPHY.  ARTICLE. 

attended  to.  Monosyllabic  words,  ending  with  a  consonant 
that  has  a  double  sound,  or  with  two  consonants  of  which 
the  former  sounds  double,  are  pronounced  short ;  e.  g.  iam, 
lamb ;  50tavf,  field.  The  others,  as  well  as  those  ending 
with  a  vowel,  long ;  e.  g.  ®g,  the  edge  of  a  sword  ;  tag, 
take;  gaa,  go;  fe,  see.  All  that  can  farther  be  said  is,  that 
the  accent  commonly  falls  upon  the  most  important  syllable, 
or  upon  that  part  of  the  word  which  is  the  invariable  root. 


CHAPTER  III. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters. 

^18.  I  HAVE  already  presented  the  proper  forms  of 
Danish  letters  in  print.  The  handwriting  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  German, 

§  19.  The  capital  letters  are  used  in  all  cases  in  which 
they  are  used  in  English,  excepting  that  the  pronoun  of  the 
first  person,  jeg,  is  usually  written  without  a  capital,  if  not 
commencing  a  sentence ;  e.  g,  bci*  jeg  |Iot>,  there  I  stood. 
Further,  in  Danish,  all  nouns,  and  all  words  used  as  nouns, 
begin  with  a  capital  letter,  as  also  all  pronouns  denoting  a 
person  adressed ;  e.  g.  £0?aut)eu,  the  man ;  @pifeu,  the 
meal ;  ^u,  thou,  35e,  you. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ARTICLE. 


§  20.     The  article  in  the  Danish  language  is  of  two 
kinds,  viz.  the  definite  and  the  indefinite. 


ARTICLE.  9 

^  21.  The  indefinite  article  is,  for  the  masculine  and 
feminine  genders,  in  the  singular,  eu,  a,  or  an,  for  the  neuter, 
ft,  a  ;  as,  m  501ant>,  a  man ;  CU  S'OUe,  a  woman ;  ct  SSavn, 
a  child.     It  has  no  plural. 

§  22.  The  definite  article  is  of  two  kinds,  viz.  (a.)  that 
for  the  nouns,  and  {b, )  that  for  the  adjectives ;  the  former 
is  used  where  the  noun  stands  without  an  adjective  ;  the 
latter,  where  it  stands  with  an  adjective. 

(«.)  The  definite  article  for  the  nouns  is,  in  the  singu- 
lar, for  the  masculine  and  feminine  genders,  en,  for  the  neu- 
ter, et ;  and  in  the  plural  for  all  three  genders  ene  or  aie,  when 
they  are  joined  to  the  last  syllable  of  a  noun ;  e.  g.  QKaut^ 
CU,  the  man ;  ^anx-tt,  the  child  ;  plur.  3}?(Xnt)'Cnc,  25^*11-' 
ene. 

(6.)  The  definite  article  for  the  adjectives  is,  in  the  sin- 
gular, for  the  masculine  and  feminine  genders,  ben,  the ;  for 
the  neuter,  and  in  the  plural  for  all  three  genders,  t>C,  the. 
It  is  placed  both  before  nouns  and  adjectives;  e.  g.  t)Cn  gODC 
CWant),  the  good  man  ;  Det  QOte  23ott),  the  good  table  ;  plur. 
be  gObe  50?o:nt>,  be  gobe  25orbe.  Likewise,  instead  of  gobe 
SDTanb'Cn,  gobe  aSovb-ct ;  gcbe  Tlc^ni>mu,  gobe  aSovb^enc. 
Here,  however,  must  be  observed  the  peculiar  use  of  the 
article  when  a  noun  is  preceded  by  the  adjective  ^ccf, 
whole,  or  the  so-called  indefinite  pronoun  al,  all ;  e.  g. 
{)ele  aSog^en,  the  whole  book  ;  al  ^at>nx,  all  the  food  ;  alt 
golfet,  the  whole  nation. 

Observations . 

§  23.  Obs.  1.  The  plural  of  the  definite  article  for 
nouns,  which  is  joined  immediately  to  the  plural  of  words 
with  the  indefinite  article,  is  t\U  to  those  nouns  which  in 
the  indefinite  plural  do  not  end  in  e  or  V ;  e.  g.  9}?«nb, 
50Tanb'Cne;  SB^nt,  25m-u=eue;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  ue  to 
those  words  which  in  the  indefinite  plural  end  in  c  or  cr  ; 
e.  g.  Soncr,  Kouecme ;  aSovbe,  aSorbe-ne. 


10  NOUN. 

§  24.  Obs,  2.  The  definite  article  for  the  adjectives 
is  now  and  then  used  in  poetry  instead  of  that  for  the  nouns ; 
e.  g.  faa  piU  l)C  3t0Vt>mCCnt)  for  atorge,  they  Northmen  thus 
fight  for  Norway ;  where  U  SlOVtmCCUt)  stands  for  3l0V^' 

§  25.  Obs,  3.  When  several  nouns  are  united  with 
each  other,  and  one  of  them  has  the  definite  article,  they 
must  all  have  the  same ;  e.  g.  man  tttaci  ta^t  "^it^m  Cg  itu 
(igljCbeat  ia^t,  the  time  and  the  opportunity  must  be  con- 
sidered :  not  %iHn  og  ieiligt)et),  nor  3:it>  og  icilig^eten. 

When  these  united  nouns  are  of  different  genders,  and 
the  first  has  an  article,  it  must  be  repeated  by  the  rest: 
e.  g.  en  sHepublit  og  ct  CDTonavfie  ere  forffjelUge  sHcg= 
jcviatg^fovmcr,  a  republic  and  a  monarchy  are  different 
forms  of  government ;  t)et  i)&k  93tob  Og  t)en  utmcevf  ct)e  3:ap= 
pev^et),  t)cat  imgc  ^viger  S)iip,  i>ax  ijan^  SHoe^,  men  ogfaa 
^an^  ^Ugt/  the  high  courage  and  the  remarkable  bravery 
shown  by  the  young  warrior  was  his  praise,  as  also  his 
duty. 


CHAPTER  V. 

NOUN. 
General  Statement. 

^  26.  Nouns  in  Danish  have  but  two  grammatical  gen- 
ders, viz.  {a.)  gcclkffj^n  (genus  commune),  which  compri- 
ses the  masculine  and  the  feminine,  and  (6.)  ^WUttj&n  (ge- 
nus neutrum),  the  neuter  gender.  There  are  two  numbers, 
singular  and  plural ;  and  five  cases,  viz.  nominative,  gen- 
itive, dative,  accusative,  and  vocative. 

^  27.  The  gcedcffj-an  is  signified  by  the  article  en  and 
l>cn ;  the  3ntctf)4)n  by  et  and  Det ;  e.  g.  en  SDTant),  CDTanten ; 
et  ®ort),  "tSovm. 


NOUN.  11 

In  the  formations  of  the  plural  (of  which  there  are  four  in 
Danish  nouns),  it  must  be  observed,  that  in  some  words  the 
letter  a  is  changed  into  the  letter  a,  and  the  letter  o,  to  Q  ; 
e.  g.  9}TanD,  SDiant);  COloDev,  13}?-at>ve.  The  four  formations 
are  the  following  :  — 

1.)  The  plural  is  unchanged  as  well  as  the  singular;  e.  g. 
et  Sl^g,  an  egg ;  to  ^"Sg,  two  eggs ;  et  25aau^,  a  ribbon  ; 
tve  25aant>/  three  ribbons. 

2.)  By  adding  the  letter  e  to  the  singular;  e.  g.  ©frCCt»Cr, 
tailor,  plur.  ©ffCeDevc.  Some  words,  besides  adding  the 
letter  e,  double  the  last  consonant ;  e.  g.  ffiient)Om,  posses- 
sion, plur.  Cicut>ommc. 

3.)  By  adding  the  letter  r  to  the  singular  ;  e  g.  JjjCVtC, 
heart,  plur.  J^jevtcv ;  S5ue,  bow,  plur.  SSuer. 

4.)  By  adding  ev  to  the  singular,  except  when  the  word 
ends  in  the  silent  e,  in  which  case  only  v  is  added. 

Declension  of  Danish  Nouns. 

§  28,  The  Danish  language  has  but  two  declensions  ; 
(a.)  the  first,  when  the  word  is  declined  with  the  indefinite 
article,  or  without  an  article,  has  four  cases ;  (6.)  the  sec- 
ond,  when  it  is  declined  with  the  definite  article,  has  five 
cases.  The  genitive  case  ends,  in  both  declensions,  either 
in  ^  or  e^.  In  the  second  declension,  the  vocative  is  form- 
ed from  the  nominative  by  taking  away  the  article. 

^  29.     First  Declension f  with  the  Indefinite  Article. 
Ex. :  en  5D?ant),  a  man. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.  enSOtanD.  Nom.  SD?ccu^. 

Gen.   en  50?anl)^.  Gen.  ?Dto:u^^. 

Dat.  m^anl).  Bat.  9}tccu^ 

Ace.    en  3}?ant).  Ace  SOtcsuD. 


12  NOUN. 


3ntetf;, 

an. 

Ex.: 

:  et  ^mi^f 

a  house. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Norn, 

.  Ct  J^HU^. 

Nom, 

^W^^. 

Gen, 

et  J^Hfe^. 

Gen. 

i^ufe^. 

Bat. 

ct  J^uu^. 

Dat, 

^ufe. 

Ace, 

et  ^mie. 

Ace, 

^ufe. 

0,     Second  Declension ,  wi 

th  the  Definite  Article, 

galfeff; 

QU. 

Ex.: 

5Dtaut)en, 

the  man. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Norn, 

3}?anben. 

Nom, 

SQlcent)ene» 

Gen, 

5D?aut)cn^. 

Gen. 

SD?o:nt)cne^. 

Dat, 

SOTanben. 

Dat. 

CDtanbene. 

Ace. 

9)?an^cn. 

Ace. 

50Tamt)ene. 

Voc, 

CDtanD ! 

Sntetf; 

Voc. 

3}?cent ! 

Ex.: 

:  ^\l{tt,  the  house. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom, 

J^iifet. 

Nom, 

J^ufene* 

Gen. 

^Xl^H^. 

Gen. 

J^ufene^. 

Dat, 

J^ufet 

Dat. 

J^ufene. 

Ace, 

^ufet. 

Ace, 

«5wfene. 

Voc. 

^im^ ! 

Voc. 

J^ufe! 

Observations  on  the  Declensions, 

^  31.  Ohs.  1.  The  words  which  in  the  singular  end 
in  the  loud  e  need  not,  with  the  definite  article,  have  the 
whole  syllable  eu  or  et  added  to  them,  but  only  the  letter  n 
or  t ;  e.  g.  ©IccDe,  joy,  ©(cc^e-u ;  ^inMte,  window,  SJin^^ 

§  32.  O65.  2.  The  genitive  is  formed  by  adding  ^  to 
the  nominative  ;  e.  g.  Sag,  day,  Sag^.     Nouns  ending  in 


NOUN.  I^ 

€f  ]C,   and  J,  take  e^  in  the  genitive;  e.  g.  ^(j:,  witch, 

§  33.  Obs,  3.  When  several  nouns  standing  in  apposi- 
tion (that  is,  connected  without  a  conjunction),  and  denot- 
ing the  same  person  or  thing  (e.  g.  J^ilbvicffvibcven  UixHt> 
Jr^^itftlH,  Arild  Hvitfeldt  the  historian;  e^vi|^ian  ten  &r)' 
t)enl>e,  ^onge  i  Sanmavf,  Christian  the  Seventh,  king  of 
Denmark),  are  used  in  the  genitive  case,  the  last  only 
receives  the  mark  of  the  genitive ;  e.  g.  ^\\\oxu^tn\>ntn 
livilt)  J^bitfcttt^  ^VJ^nih,  the  chronicle  of  Arild  Hvitfeldt, 
the  historian ;  ^eifcvinteu  af  SHu^taut  Cat^ariua  ten  2(n- 
ten^  SRegjering,  the  reign  of  Catharine  the  Second,  Czar- 
ina of  Russia. 

§  34.  Obs,  4.  Titles  of  honor,  or  official  names  in  e, 
lose  this  e  when  they  stand  before  proper  nouns  ;  e.  g. 
Songe,  king,  ^ong  S^vi)^ian ;  CSvct)e,  count,  ©ret)  ©cfeim-' 
melman ;  J^evve,  lord,  master,  ^nt  J^^nfen  ;  etc. 

§  35.  Obs,  5.  Nouns,  which  in  the  singular  end  in  el, 
en,  and  tx,  are  sometimes  contracted  in  the  plural ;  e.  g. 
aSitfef,  curb,  plur.  S5it|Iev  (for  aSitfelef)  ;  2(ger,  acre,  plur. 
2(gve  (with  the  definite  article,  2(gven)  ;  CD^Oter,  mother, 
plur.  SDT^tve  (but  with  the  definite  article  SWoteveu,  not 
anobren). 

§  36.  Obs.  6.  The  nouns  in  ei*,  which  in  the  indefi- 
nite plural  are  not  contracted,  suffer  this  contraction  in  the 
plural  with  the  definite  article  ;  e.  g.  ©fvOJtev,  tailor,  in- 
definite plural  ©frceteve  (not  ©fvoetre),  definite  plural 
©frccDefue  (not  ©frcetevene). 

§  37.  Obs.  7.  Many  words  have  no  plural;  e.  g.  (Suit, 
gold,  &JOli),  silver,  ^aab,  hope,  @l)n,  sight,  &c.  Others 
have  no  singular ;  e.  g.  govccftve,  parents,  ©XTtffente, 
brothers  and  sisters,  &c.      Some  nouns  stand  in  certain 


*  The  old  genitives  in  fettfif — e.  g.  ^aftfettflf  (for^at5et^)  ©lln^,  the  bottom 
of  the  ocean  —  are  not  now  in  use. 

2 


14  ADJECTIVES. 

cases  in  the  singular,  and  nevertheless  denote  more  than 
one  thing;  e.  g.  tjan  t)JOhU  giff,  he  bought  fish;  ^au  Ct 
fern  go^  ij&i,  he  is  five  feet  high ;  &c. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ADJECTIVES. 

General  Statement. 

^  38.  Adjectives  in  Danish  are  varied  in  two  general 
ways,  viz.  by  comparison  and  by  declension.  These  varia- 
tions are  both  made  by  the  addition  of  one  or  more  letters 
to  the  original  simple  form. 

Comparison. 

§  39.  There  are  in  Danish,  as  in  English,  three  degrees 
of  comparison ;  the  positive,  comparative,  and  superlative. 

§  40.  The  comparative  is  formed  by  adding  ere  or  ve  to 
the  positive;  e.  g.  latD,  learned,  tovt^^eve ;  CCM'U,  sober, 
atm-nt ;  bauge,  fearful,  bange-ve. 

§  41.  The  superlative  is  formed  by  adding  e|lt  or  )l  to 
the  positive;  e.  g.  fa^,  sweet,  f^D.-etl ;  f<^^*^/  tav^'e)^;  baitge, 
ba)tge-|i 

Observations  on  Comparison. 

§42.  Obs,  1.  Some  adjectives,  especially  those  formed 
from  verbs,  and  such  as  are  composed  either  of  an  adjective 
and  a  substantive  (when  the  adjective  stands  first),  or  with 
the  particle  be,  do  not  bear  these  terminations  of  comparison, 
but  use  in  place  thereof,  in  the  ascending  degrees,  in  com- 
parative, meeV/  and  in  superlative,  meeft ;  and  in  the  de- 
scending degrees,  in  comparative,  miuM*e,  in  superlative, 
miut)|i     E.  g.  fovtvl;Ileal^e,  charming,  meet  fovtn;(Ienl)e, 


ADJECTIVES.  (IS 

mccjl  fortft)tlcnl>e ;  ff jat)benet,  crooklegged,  meet  ffjatbc? 
net,  mu\l  ff ja:\)6enet ;  bc^jcrtct,  courageous,  miutve  be^jev- 
ttt,  miuD|l  bc^jci-tet. 

§  43.  Obs.  2.  When  adjectives  ending  in  a  simple 
consonant,  and  in  the  last  syllable  of  which  is  a  short- 
sounded  vowel,  at  the  terminations  of  the  comparative  and 
superlative  grow  in  the  end,  the  consonant  at  the  end  is 
often  doubled ;  e.  g.  fmuf,  handsome,  fmuffcvc,  fmutfe|l. 

§  44.  Obs.  3.  Adjectives,  which  in  the  positive  end  in 
d,  cn,  CV,  suffer,  when  they  in  the  comparative  and  superla- 
tive grow  in  the  end,  a  contraction,  by  throwing  away  the 
vowel  preceding  the  consonant  at  the  end  ;  e.  g.  CC^e[,  no- 
ble, ccMevc  (from  aDelcve),  Qtt)U\\  (from  cetelet^). 

§  45.  Obs,  4.  Superlatives  are  raised  by  prefixing  the 
word  ailn  to  the  adjective ;  e.  g.  aUevt)CU(i9|l,  most  friendly, 
af(crtUv|i,  tallest  of  all,  &c. 

§  46.  Obs.  5.  Some  adjectives  are  irregular  in  their 
comparison ;  e.  g.  faa,  few,  fccrve,  fcervell ;  gammel,  old, 
o:(t>ve,  o:f^|i ;  gob,  good,  bmt,  htr>\l ;  lan^,  long,  langete, 
laugll ;  (iDctt,  little,  miuDve,  mu\t\l ;  mange,  many,  |Iere, 
flcet^ ;  megen,  much,  meve,  meeil ;  nccr,  near,  noenneve, 
nccvmc|t ;  onb,  bad,  tjccvve,  \)a\:\l ;  fmaa,  small,  fmcxrve, 
fmccvrell;  \Uiict,  \i<xiim,  \\(xih\\:,  jltoc,  tall,  jlt^M've,  \U\:\l; 
ttng,  young,  l)ngve,  ^ngth  Some  are  defective  ;  e.  g.  6ageli, 
hindermost,  has  no  positive  and  comparative ;  egcn,*  own, 
has  no  comparative  and  superlative ;  netve,  lower,  has  no 
positive  ;  the  superlative  is  nebev|h 

Declension. 

^  47.  There  are  two  declensions  of  adjectives  in 
Danish. 

*  E.  g.  meb  min  egen  -^aanb,  with  my  own  hand  ;  but  when  egm  means 
queer,  curiom  (as  it  sometimes  does),  it  is  compared  regularly. 


16  ADJECTIVES. 

§  48.     First  Declension,  with  the  Indefinite  Article, 
Ex. :  cn  I^OV  a)Tan,  a  tall  man. 

Singular.  Plural. 

N,  en  per  ^axi  N.  ]}cxt  9}?ccnN 

G:  en  t^oi*  ?OTan^.  G,  jlove  9}tan^^. 

D.  ^A.  en  1?or  3}Tan.  i>.  4-  A.  \tm  SD?ant). 

SntHff^n. 

Ex.  :  et  |IOVt  ^UU^,  a  great  house. 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  et  l^ovt  ^m^.  N.  jlove  ^ufe. 

G^.  et  )iovt  J^ufe^.  ^-  jTove  J^ufe^. 

2>.  4-  J.  et  llovt  Jjun^.  1>.  4-  ^.  )^ore  J^ufc. 

§  49.     Second  Declension,  with  the  Definite  Article, 

goilfeffj^n. 
Ex. :  Sen  l^ove  SD?ani),  the  tall  man. 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  2)en  jlove  SD?an^  N,  Se  t^ove  CDTanD. 

6?.  Sen  lltcve  OHant)^.  G^.  Se  ]loxt  ^mr>^. 

D.  Sf^A.  Sen  |love  Tlan^.  D.  4*  ^.  Se  |l^ove  ^mt>. 

V.  ©tore  SDtant) !  v:  ©tove  SD?a;nl> ! 

3ntett)4^n. 

Ex. :  Set  |l0Ve  J^wn^,  the  great  house. 

Singular.  Plural. 

N,  Set  |lore  J^un^.  iV.  Se  llore  J^ufe. 

G.  Set  )]cre  J^nfe^.  G.  Se  tlove  J^ufe^. 

D.  4«  A,  Set  t^ove  J^un^^  D.  ^  A.  Se  Ibve  ^nfe. 

F.  ©toveJ^un^l  F.  ©toveJ5ufe! 


ADJECTIVES.  17 

Observations  on  the  First  Declension, 

§  50.  Obs,  1.  According  to  this  declension,  adjectives 
are  also  declined,  when  they  are  preceded  by  the  pronoun 
l)t)ilfcu,  which,  with  an  exclaiming  signification ;  e.  g.  Ij^iU 
fen  got)  SDTant) !  how  kind  a  man  !  &c. 

§  51.     Obs.  2.     The  adjectives  which  end  in  0,  ff,  |l,  t, 

u,  t),  do  not  add  a  t  in  the  3ntetf j-au ;  e.  g.  et  tvo  3}?enucffe, 

a  faithfiil  person;  ct  ^i)loviff  3ul>^o(t),  an  historical  index; 
&c.  Except  the  word  n\),  new,  which  in  the  ^nUti)&n 
has  n\)t ;  e.  g.  et  ni;t  ^XIU^,  a  new  house. 

§  52.  06s.  3.  Words  of  more  than  one  syllable  end- 
ing in  e^,  and  adjectives  in  e,  are  not  declined ;  e.  g.  iail)^ 
\>OXM  g^Ielfe,  internal  feeling;  CU  6auge  Srcug,  a  frighten- 
ed boy ;  &/C. 

§  53.  Obs.  4.  ©gen,  own,  litCtt,  small,  and  ttiegcn, 
much,  throw,  in  the  3ntetf  j^U,  the  letter  n  away,  when  stand- 
ing before  t ;  e.  g.  cgct,  fit)Ct,  meget.  ©gCU  and  megeu 
follow  this  declension  everywhere  in  the  singular  ;  e.  g.  tuitt 
egcu  (not  egne)  -O^^nb,  my  own  hand;  ten  mcgen  (not  megs 
lie)  (Sot^et,  (the)  much  kindness.  When  egen,  on  the  con- 
trary, signifies  fCCfCgen  (peculiar,  singular),  then  it  follows 
the  second  declension ;  e.  g.  \)ibenffabe(ig  CuIUlt*  Mtet*  ci 
ut)en  £)pt)o:ffeffen  af  t>en  egne  ^raft  tii  ©efouivffom^eb, 
scientific  culture  is  useless  without  the  excitement  of  the 
peculiar  power  of  self-action.  iit>tn  is  with  the  definite 
article  called  lilfe,  and  in  the  plural  fmaae. 

§  54.  Obs.  5.  Adjectives  which  stand  disjoined  fol- 
low this  declension  ;  e.  g.  sptgen^  gavjlanb  et*  |lor,  the 
maiden's  knowledge  is  great;  fiMfet  ei*  gOtt,  the  beer  is 
good  ;  §oroeft>vene  eve  atedge,  the  parents  are  noble. 

Observations  on  the  Second  Declension. 

%  55.  Obs.  1.  According  to  this  declension  adjectives 
are  also  declined,  when  preceded  by  a  genitive  or  a  pro- 

2* 


18  ADJECTIVES. 

noun  ;  *  e.  g.  SOtautCU^  ^^ie  ^xm^,  the  man's  high  house ; 
jeg  CCVlige  SOtant),  honest  man  that  I  am ;  tin  i}<XXt  35cu, 
thy  dear  friend ;  Ijiin  bvaDe  S^OUC,  that  brave  woman  ;  &/C. 
Adjectives  can  also  be  declined  thus  in  the  Nom.,  Gen., 
Dat.,  and  Ace,  when  preceded  by  the  interrogating  or 
relative  ^t)i[{:'CJl ;  e.  g.  Sing.  Nom»  ^\)\lim  goDe  £0?anl) 
ev  ^Ct,  fom  Mt  tain  cm  ?  what  good  man  is  it  that  you 
are  speaking  of?  ^\>\licn  90^e  ^an\:>  ci  aleue  ^av  vceb- 
t>c\>  mi^,  men  ogfaci  mine  23m*n,  which  good  man  has  not 
only  saved  me,  but  also  my  children.  Gen.  J^^iffcn  gObe 
CDIanD^  23^rn  tafer  ^n  Om  ?  what  good  man's  children  do 
you  speak  of?    ^\)\[hn  got)e  9}?ant)^  ^&tn  jeci  ffal  forft)ave 

til  mit  i;t>cr|Ie,  which  good  man's  children  I  will  defend  to 

my  last.  Dat.  ^Miax  gote  9}?an^  gat)  Dn  ^engene  ?  to 
what  good  man  did  you  give  the  money  ?  J^^ilf^'H  gCDe  93Tan^ 
jeg  )U*a]l*  ^(i\)  ^engene,  to  which  good  man  I  immediately 
gave  the  money.  Ace.  J^t^itfen  gOt>C  9}?anb  taUv  t>Xl  om  ? 
of  what  good  man  are  you  speaking?  J^^itf^l^  gOt>e  CDTan^ 
jeg  nat)ncv  met)  ^'Srefv^gt,  which  good  man  I  name  with 
reverence.  Plural  Nom.  ^\)ilh  gODe  5D?CCnt>  er  t>et,  fom  ^n 
tafer  om  ?  ^Mh  goDe  5D?ccn^  Ijevtjet)  in^lievne^  far  9tetten, 
which  good  men  hereby  are  summoned  before  the  court. 
Gen.  ^\>ilh  got)e  SD?ccn^^  S3-avn  mener  bn?  ^"oilh  goDe 
D}?ant)^  35-ani  jeg  alt»vig  ftal  fovfate.  Dat.  JpDiffe  gobc 
OTant)  gaV)  t)n  tet?  J5t)ilfe  goDe  £D?oen^  jeg  |lrar  gat) 
2((ting.  Ace.  J5\)ilfe  go^e  SDI^nt)  mener  Du  ?  ^Mh  gobe 
a}?cen^  jeg  l}evt)et)  in^t^oct)nev  fai-  SKetcen. 

^  56.  Obs.  2.  The  adjective  |)ee(  can  also  be  declined 
in  the  singular  according  to  this  declension,  although  the 
noun  has  the  definite  article  for  substantives  instead  of  that 
for  adjectives;  e.  g.  ^e(e  ©tnen  t)ar  fntb  af  golf,  the  whole 
room  was  full  of  people,  for  ten  ^ele  ®tnt ;  ^efe  golfet  t)ar 

*  Except  those  named  in  Obs.  1,  ^  50. 


ADJECTIVES.  19 

i  95ci)age(fc,  the  whole  nation  was  in  commotion,  for  ^et 

§  57.  Ohs.  3.  Formerly  it  was  the  custom  to  add  z\\  to 
the  adjective,  both  in  the  gocdcff  J4^n  and  ^\\Utt)Q\\,  instead 
of  the  definite  article  ;  e.  g.  t>et)  ij&'mx  SO?a|l,  for  t)eb  \>m 
ijOM  9}?a|h  This  is  also  done  in  names  of  nations ;  e.  g. 
Sauffcu,  ©\)Cnffcn  ;  and  by  poets,  who  also  often  leave  out 
the  article  ;  e.  g.  met)  U\^^u  @^n,  for  me&  ten  tappve  ©^tt. 

General  Observations  on  both  Declensions, 

^  58.  Obs,  1.  When  an  adjective,  which  ends  in  a 
simple  consonant,  and  in  the  last  syllable  of  which  there  is 
a  short-sounded  vowel,  grows  in  the  end,  consequently  in  the 
plural  with  the  indefinite  article  (first  declension),  and  in 
the  singular  with  the  definite  article  (second  declension), 
the  consonant  ending  the  word  is  always  doubled  ;  e.  g. 
fmuf,  handsome,  plural  with  the  indefinite  article,  fmuftc 
95<(n*U ;  singular  with  the  definite  article,  ten  fmuttc  SvCUg/ 
the  handsome  lad,  &>c. 

§  59.  Obs.  2.  Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable, 
in  ft,  change,  with  the  indefinite  article,  in  the  plural,  and 
with  the  definite  article,  in  the  singular,  the  ending  con- 
sonant t  to  ^  ;  e.  g.  en  een^iet  COTaut),  a  one-eyed  man, 
eeu-aiete  3}?«n^,  Un  uxmtu  3}Taul)» 

^  60.  Obs.  3.  When  adjectives  stand  as  substantives, 
the  letter  (?  is  added  to  the  genitive  the  same  as  with  real 
substantives.    E.  g.  Nom.  ten  ©tOVC  ;  Gen.  ten  ©tove^/  ^c. 

Form  and  Position  of  Adjectives. 

^61.  As  to  the  place  of  an  adjective,  when  joined  to  a 
substantive,  the'  Danish  language  acknowledges  precisely 
the  same  rules  as  the  English ;  e.  g.  Srengen  ev  gfaD,  the 
boy  is  glad,  lange  2(vme,  long  arms,  &c.     The  same  is  the 


20  ADJECTIVES. 

case  when  adjectives  are   explained  as  participles ;   e.  g. 
et  ©i;n  c\i;fefigt  at  fee  pa<X,  a  sight  horrible  to  look  at,  &,c. 

§  62.  An  adjective  (or  a  pronoun  or  participle  used  as 
an  adjective)  agrees  with  its  substantive  in  gender  and  num- 
ber; e.  g.  )Iou  ?0?anb,  great  man,  mill  25ro^er,  my  brother, 
en  elffeD  9}Tot>er,  a  beloved  mother,  &/C.  But  not  so  in  the 
cases.  In  the  nominative,  they  are  always  alike;  but  if  the 
substantive  stands  in  the  genitive  case,  with  its  adjective 
before  it,  the  substantive  only  is  so  inflected ;  e.  g.  en  |IOU 
EDTanb^  ^<Xt,  a  great  man's  hat,  not  en  ItOV^  50?ant)^  J^^t,  &c. 

§  63.  If  an  adjective  be  joined  to  a  proper  name,  as 
expressive  of  its  rank,  order,  or  qualification,  as  ^Hn  ten 
jlore,  Peter  the  Great,  and  the  context  requires  that  name 
to  be  in  the  genitive  case,  then  the  adjective  only  is  so  in- 
flected ;  e.  g.  S^nnt  ten  l^ove^  aSetrifter,  Canute  the  Great's 
achievements,  not  S^nilt)^  Den  )loi*e^,  fcc. 

^  64.  When  an  adjective  stands  absolute,  or  without  its 
substantive,  it  may  also  be  inflected  in  the  genitive  case ; 
e.  g.  en  ]lox^,  a  great  one's,  and  definitely  ten  \\CXt^,  plur. 
te  floret. 

§  65.  If  two  or  more  substantives  in  the  singular  require 
a  verb  to  be  plural,  the  adjective  following  is  also  placed  in 
the  plural ;  e.  g.  J^^^nten,  gingven  eg  SHingen  t)ave  |toi'e, 
the  hand,  the  finger,  and  the  ring  were  great,  not  flor;  but 
if  the  verb  remains  in  the  singular,  the  adjective  also  re- 
mains singular ;  e.  g.  J^^^nten,  gingren  eg  fe(t)e  IHingen  t)ar 
jlcr,  the  hand,  the  finger,  and  the  ring  itself  was  large  ; 
not  )love,  unless  we  say  Ijave. 


PRONOUN.  H 

CHAPTER  VII. 

PRONOUN. 

General  Statement. 

^  66.  The  Danish  pronouns  are  divided,  as  in  English, 
into  Personal,  Possessive,  Demonstrative,  Relative,  Inter' 
rogative,  and  Indefinite. 

Personal  Pronouns. 

§  67.  The  personal  pronouns,  which  are  substantive, 
are  3eg,  I ;  2)U,  thou  ;  ^<x\\,  he  ;  J^un,  her ;  Seal,  Set,  that; 
the  reflective,  @ig,  one's  self;  the  reciprocal,  J^inajl^en, 
J^tjeranM-e,  each  other. 

§  68.  The  pronoun  of  the  first  person  is  declined  as 
follows  :  — 

For  all  Genders. 

Singular,  '  Plural. 

N.  3e9.  iV.  93i. 

D.  4*  A.  5Xnig.  G.  SBore^. 

D.  4*  A.  0^. 

§  69.  The  pronoun  of  the  second  person  is  declined  as 
follows :  — 

For  all  Genders, 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  2)u.  -    N.  3. 

D.  4-  A.  3)ig.  G.  etev^. 

V.  S)u.  D.  ^  A.  Ct)ev  or  3ev. 

V.  3. 

§  70.  The  pronoun  of  the  third  person  is  declined  as 
follows  :  — 


22  PRONOUN. 

^anfj^n  (masculine).  ^m\t]9n  (feminine). 

Singular.  Singular. 

N.  Jgau.  N.  Jgmu 

G.  ^an^.  G.  ^nm^. 

D.  4-  A,  ^am,  ©ig,  D.  4-  ^.  J^en^c,  ©ig. 

Scctteftj^it.  3ntetfj«n. 

Singular.  Singular. 

N.  Sen.  iV.  2)et. 

Z).  4-  ^.  Sen,  ©ig.  i>.  4-  ^.  "^n,  @ig. 

Plural  for  both  Genders. 

N.  Se.         G^.  2)cve^.         D.  §•  ^.  Sem,  ©ig. 

§  71.  The  reciprocal  pronouns  are  only  used  in  the 
plural :  — 

D,  4*  A.  J^iuaubeit.  D.  4*  A.  J5t)eranbve. 

G,  ^inauDen^.  G^.  JpDcvauM-c^. 

§  72.  06s.  1.  When  the  conversation  is  of  a  person 
of  high  rank,  the  third  person  plural  must  not  not  be  used 
for  the  third  person  singular.  Thus  we  ought  to  say,  ter- 
^XXiX  fom  (not  t>eve^)  J^^H^  ^QmWX\>\^\)Z\>,  thereupon  his 
Lordship  came. 

§  73.  Obs,  2.  The  reflective  pronoun  f(g  is  used  for 
t;am,  ^CUte,  t^eu,  t)et,  Dem,  in  the  dative  and  accusative, 
when  they  relate  to  the  subject  of  a  sentence ;  e.  g.  ^ail 
^H  f^3/  ^*  r  ^v*  he  struck  himself,  &c.  But,  when  they 
stand  as  subject  instead  of  Su  or  3,  then  fig  must  not  be 
used,  but  l)cm,  although  this  HXXI  has  reference  to  the  sub- 
ject;  e.  g.  Se  (3)u)  maa  6ctccnfe  t)cm  (not  fig)  t)a*paa, 
you  must  reflect  upon  it;  Se  (3)  maac  ^dh  t)cm  (not  fig) 
bovt,  you  must  be  gone.     If,  on  the  contrary,   the  subject 

*  This  is  the  abbreviation  of  c^  faa  t>tl>ere,  and  so  forthi 


PRONOUN.  SIS: 

i)an,  t}\m,  is  used  instead  of  ©u,  then  ^am,  t)CnU,  is  not  used, 
but  f(5;  e.  g.  t)il  Ijau  (()im)  t>og  paffe  fig  (not  ^am,  ^enDc) 
6ovt !  will  you  be  gone,  I  entreat ! 

§  74.  Jjinanten  is  used  (as.  a  sort  of  dual)  of  two  ; 
f)l)Cvantt:e,  on  the  contrary,  of  more  than  two. 

Possessive  Pronouns. 

^  75.  The  possessive  pronouns,  which  are  adjective,  are 
9}lin,  mine ;  33ov,  our  ;  j)in,  thine ;  3cr,  your  ;  ©in,  his ; 
©ev,  their. 


§76. 

First  Person. 

Sntetf. 

Singular. 

50?in.    SBor. 
SCriit.    gjovt. 

Plural 
for  both  Genders. 

SDtine.     25ore. 

§77. 

Second  Person, 

gcefteff. 
Sntctf. 

©in.    3cr. 
©it.    3evt. 

Plural 
for  both  Genders. 

"S^'xiM.    3cre. 

§78. 

Third  Person. 

goefleff. 
3utetf. 

Singular. 

©in.    (©ev.) 
©it.    (©evt.) 

Plural 
for  both  Genders. 

©inc.    (©eve.) 

Observations. 

§79.  Ohs.  \,  The  possessive  pronouns  are  declined 
like  the  adjectives,  and  stand,  like  these,  either  disjunctive, 
conjunctive,  or  substantive ;  e.  g  39ogen  CV  win,  the  book 
is  mine;  min  SSogcr  fctoen  fcovte,  my  book  is  lost ;  min  gif 
fovam,  mine  walked  in  front. — ^\\\,  t>'x\\,  and  ftn  throw 
away  n  in  the  3ntetf)^n.  —  ^ove^,  jeve^,  and  t)ere^  are 
used  instead  of  t)or,  ;er,  and  bev ;  e.  g.  tet  et  t)Ot  J^itnt, 
t)OVt  J5»U^,  it  is  our  dog,  our  house ;  J^MH^nt,  JgJnfCt  er 
t)OVe^,  i&C'C.  —  As  the  pronoun  ter  (in  place  of  which  the 


24  PRONOUN. 

Gen.  tJCrc^  is  used)  is  only  applied  in  daily  conversation 
among  the  lower  classes,  I  have  put  it  in  parentheses. 

§  80.  Obs.  2.  The  possessive  pronoun  ftn  is  used  in- 
stead of  Ijan^,  ^enbe^,  Un^,  tM,  when  they  express  the 
subject  of  the  sentence;  e.  g.  ()an  I)ar  ftu  ^C|l  flttC  spengC 
f  jOCVeve  en^  faa,  O.  f.  ^.,  he  loves  his  horse,  his  money  better 
than  that,  &c.  But  ftn  must  never  be  used  instead  of  ^c= 
ve^,  as  it  is  only  used  to  denote  one  possessing  person  ;  thus 
we  ought  to  say,  e.  g.,  t)e  UH  efCCV  t)CVC^  (not  fine)  @t^\)lcv, 
they  seek  after  their  boots  j  SRigevne  {)at)e  tcve^  (not  fin) 
ga^et*  i  t>ei*e^  (not  fin)  ^onge,  the  countries  have  their 
father  in  their  king. 

Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

§  81.  The  demonstrative  pronouns,  which  are  substan- 
tive, are  '^cn,  that ;  Sennc,  this  ;  ^xxn,  that  one. 

^82.    S)en. 

Singular,  Plural 

S«W^ffj*tt.  3ntetf)«n.  /or  both  Genders. 

N.  ©en.       N.  Set.  iV.  2)e. 

6?.  Sen^.      G.  Set^.  G^.  Seve^. 

D.  4*^.  Sen.       Z>.  ^-^.Set.  Z>.  4*  ^.  2)em. 

Observations. 

§  83.  06s.  1.  When  ben  is  used  as  an  adjective,  it  has 
not  t)em  in  Ace.  plur. ;  but  as  all  the  cases  in  this  instance 
are  alike,  it  becomes  like  the  Nom.  be ;  e.  g.  be  SlSblev  ^il 
jeg  t)&lHf  those  apples  I  will  buy. 

§  84.  Obs.  2.  The  adverb  t>n,  her,  is  often  used  in- 
stead of  this  pronoun  with  a  preposition  in  connection  with 

the  same;  e.  g.  benneb  (for  nieb  mtt)  et*  ©agen  tilenbe, 
with  this  the  matter  is  settled. 


PRONOUN. 


25 


Plural 
for  both  genders. 

N.  5)i(fe. 

D.S^  A.  2)itfe. 


Plural 
for  both  genders. 

N.  J^ine. 

G.  J^iuc^. 

D.  4-  A.  ^iate. 


§  85.    ©enne. 

Singular. 

N.  Scnne.      iV.  ^ette. 

G^.  Sennet.    G,  "i^ttu^. 

D.  ^  A.  Senne.      D.  S^  A.  "X^au. 

\  86.    J^iin. 

Singular. 

A'.  ^iin.      iV.  Jjiint. 

D,  4*  ^.  ^iiu.      I>.  S^  A.  ipiinC. 
Observations, 

^  87.  055.  1.  These  demonstrative  pronouns  stand  al- 
so as  adjectives,  and  have  all  their  cases  like  that  of  the 
nominative;  e.  g.  Nom.  Sen  93Tan^  ^av  9Jort  M,  that  man 
has  done  it ;  Gen.  S)cn  9}?anl)^  25vol)Cr  er  (;cr,  that  man's 
brother  is  here;  Sijfe  a}t«n^^  S5-avn  jtf  ©tvaf,  these  men's 
children  got  punishment ;  Ace.  plur.  3eg  ijOlUx  mcgCt  af 
^ijfc  23^l*n,  I  love  these  children  much. 

^  88.  Obs.  2.  As  these,  like  all  pronouns,  make  the 
noun  definite,  even  when  they,  like  adjectives,  are  con^ 
nected  with  it,  the  noun  therefore  cannot  have  an  article. 
I  cannot  say  t)en  SDIauteJt,  nor  ten  ijim  5D?aul),  and  much 
less  ejt  ^iin  SDtauD. 


Relative  Pronouns. 

§  89.  The  relative  pronouns,  which  are  substantive,  are, 
@om,  who,  which,  or  that,  ^\>iltax,  who,  which,  or  that, 
2)er,  who,  which,  or  that. 

§  90.     ©cm.     In  both  Numbers  and  Genders. 
N.  ©cm.  G.  ^t)i^.  D.  S^  ^.  @om. 


26  PRONOUN. 

Observations. 

§  91.  Ohs.  1.  The  relative  font  is  used,  when  the  po- 
sition of  the  relative  is  but  adjective  ;  that  is,  it  serves  only 
to  determine  more  nearly  that  word  in  the  place  of  which 
the  relative  stands ;  e.  g.  ^av  ^U  faact  U  S-agCV,  fom  ;eg 
fent)te  3)tg  1  b.  C«*  U  t)ig  fenttc  SS^gcr,  have  you  received 
the  books  which  I  sent  you  ?  that  is,  the  books  sent  to  you. 

§  92.  Obs,  2.  ©cm  is  often  left  out;  but  this  omission 
ought  not  generally  to  take  place,  except  where  it  should 
stand  in  the  Dat.  or  Ace;  e.  g.  SOTatCtt  (fom)  ^au  fpifcv 
fmager  gO^t,  the  food  (which)  he  eats  tastes  good.  And 
especially  does  this  omission  take  place  when  the  relative 
position  is  preceded  by  a  noun  with  the  demonstrative  bCU/ 
or  with  the  definite  article  for  the  nouns,  or  the  Dat.  or  Ace. 
of  a  pronoun,  the  Nom.  of  which  is  different  from  its  Dat. 
and  Ace. ;  e.  g.  t)en  ^iXb,  (fom)  t>u  fpifcv ;  bet  n  Ijam 
(mig,  fjcuDe,  t)ig,  ^cm,  o^,  etcv),  (fom)  t»ct  9ti;gte  gaaer  om, 
it  is  him  (me,  her,  thee,  them,  us,  you)  of  (whom)  the  re- 
port is  spread. 

§  93.  Obs,  3.  The  relative  adverbs  t>a  and  ^t)Or  are 
often  used  for  relative  pronouns ;  e.  g.  3eg  f om  pcici  ^av= 
terret  i  Ut  flMebfif  ta  (^  e.  i  ^t)ilfet)  eometJieu  beg^lt^te, 
og  fom  t\i  at  tltaae  paa  t)ec  lleD,  ^\>n  (K  e.  pact  ()t)iltct)  jeg 
|ltot)  fovIc^CU/  I  came  into  the  pit  at  the  moment  when  the 
comedy  commenced,  and  happened  to  occupy  the  same 
place  which  I  did  the  other  day. 

§  94.     J^Diffen. 
Singular. 

N.  J5\)iften.  N.  ^\>\IUU 

G.  ^S>'x^  or  S^S^'xlhw^,     G.  J5t)i^  or  ^"oilht^. 

D.  4-  A.  ^\>\[h\\.  D,  S^  A.  S^\>\\ht 

*  This  is  the  abbreviation  of  bet  it,  that  is. 


PRONOUN.  27 

Plural  for  both  Genders, 

N,  ^\>'\{h.        G.  ^\>i^  or  J5^iIfeb^        Z>.  4-  A.  ^mlh. 

Observations, 

^  95.  Obs.  1.  ^\>ii{m  also  stands  adjective,  and  has 
then  all  cases  like  the  nominative;  e.  g.  l}\)i[fcn  ^an\>  n 
m  ?  what  man  is  that  1  ij\)Hftn  ^dwH  SSog  CV  M  ?  what 
man's  book  is  that  ? 

§  96.  Obs.  2.  When  t)\)ilim,  in  the  signification  i)Ml> 
for  ecu  (which  one),  is  used  interrogatively,  it  belongs  to  the 
interrogative  pronouns;  e.  g.  ^t)ilfen  et*  t)in  ^Og  af  Dilfc  to? 
which  one  of  these  two  is  your  book  ?  ^t)ilf  eu  t)it  Du  ^at)e  ? 
which  one  will  you  have  ? 

§  97.  Obs.  3.  The  interrogative  pronoun  J)t)0  is  also 
now  and  then  used  as  a  relative  pronoun.     (See  ^  102.) 

§  98.  Obs,  4.  Instead  of  the  relative  ^\)ilfett  with  a 
preposition,  the  adverb  tj\)OX  is  often  used  in  connection  with 
it ;  e.  g.  ()t)0Vi  (for  i  ^Dilfm,  wherein) ;  {)\)Ovaf  (for  af  ijXiiU 
feu,  of  which)  ;  &c. 

§  99.    Ser. 

Singular.  Plural 

gc«((eff|«n.  3tttett)^n.  /or  Z>o«/i  genders. 

N,  Ser.       iV.  J)cr.  iV.  »cv. 

G^.  ^\>\^.       G,  J5t)i^.  G^.  JptJi^. 

D.  S^  A.  Sen.       1>.  4-  -4.  Set.  />.  4-  A,  2)em. 

§  100.  The  relative  t)er  is  of  great  use  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  conjunction  foitt/  in  order  to  maintain  har- 
mony ;  e.  g.  3)u  f jo:nt)ev  )o  nof  Kj^bmant)  91.,  t)et*  (not 
fom)  if; 01*  fpilleDe  gallit,  fom  faa  mange  antre,  you  know 
very  well  the  merchant  N.,  who  went  into  bankruptcy  last 
summer,  like  so  many  others. 


28  PRONOUN. 

Interrogative  Pronoun. 

§  101.  The  interrogative  pronoun,  which  is  substantive, 
is  ^'OOf  who,  what. 

Singular, 

N.  Jg\)o  or  J5t)em,  N.  ^t)at). 

G.  ^t)i^.  G,  J5t)i^. 

D.  ^  A,  ^\)m.  D,  ^  A.  Jg^at). 

Plural  for  both  genders. 

N.  J!p\)o  or  ^S)m.        G.  J5t)i^.        2>.  ^  A.  ^"om. 
Observation, 

§  102.  ^\>0  is  partly  interrogative;  e.  g.  J^^^^  (l)t)Cm) 
l)ai*  9/ Oft  t)et  ?  who  has  done  it  ?  Partly  demonstrative-rela- 
tive ;  e.  g.  3eg  t)ceD  iih  t)))o  t)ei*  (t.  e.  ten  fom)  ^av  gjovt 
liet,  I  know  not  who  has  done  it.  It  is  even  now  and  then, 
when  used  for  persons  in  the  Dat.  and  Ace,  entirely  a  rel- 
ative pronoun ;  e.  g.  Dat.  2)er  jltrtcier  min  25i*ol)ei*,  i)\>nn  (K 
e.  fom)  bu  igaav  ga\)  t)in  ©temme  til  ©ecvctaiviatct,  there 
stands  my  brother,  to  whom  you  yesterday  gave  your  vote  for 
the  secretary-office;  Ace.  3)ct  er  Itetaf^  ©ecvetairctt  Ij^cm 
(&.  c.  fom)   t)U  l)CV  f^cr,  It  is  just  the  secretary  whom  you 


Indefinite  Pronouns. 

§  103.  The  so-called  indefinite  pronouns,  which,  al- 
though they  could  not  actually  be  brought  under  any  of  the 
former  classes,  yet  have  the  general  characteristics  where- 
by the  pronouns  differ  as  well  from  the  substantives  as  from 
the  adjectives,  are  (a.)  some  pronominal  adjectives,  which 
partly  could  never  admit  of  comparison,  partly  either  admit 
of  no  article-addition  at  all,  or  do  not  admit  of  the  same 


PRONOUN.  29 

before  it ;  (b.)  two  pronominal  substantives,  which  also  do 
not  admit  of  any  article-addition;  and  (c.)  the  pronominal 
adverb  Hv* 

The  Pronominal  Adjectives  are  the  following, 

§  104.     Those  which  admit  of  no  article-addition. 

Singular,  Plural 

3ce(teft|*tt.  3ntettj*n.  for  both  genders* 

1.  CDtaugcn.  ?!}?angt.  * 

E.  g.  3eg  ijav  mangen  en  gla^  Sag,  I  have  many  a  glad 
day;  ^n  CI*  maugt  Ct  tungt  Ttrbeil),  here  is  many  a  hard  la- 
bor. 

2.  atogen.  9togct.  Slogcn  and  3flcg(c.t 
E.  g.  SOtau  ^ar  l>Og  UOgCU   ^fo:^e,  one  has  indeed  some 

joy ;  ®ev  n  l)Og  UOget  gOt)t  Dct)  t}am,  there  is  really  some 
good  in  him ;  ^av  tn  UOgeu  2Sfcfev  ?  have  you  any  apples  ? 
3a,  UOgfe,  yes,  some. 

3.     ©ornme.  | 

E.  g.  ©omme  (t).  e.  tjifle,  nogtc)  2)age  ct*  f)uu  ganffe 

Utuntcr,  some  days  she  is  quite  lively. 

4.  3ugcat,  3ntct.  3ngen. 

E.  g.  Jjcr  ct*  ingcn  SD?at)  paa  a5ovt)ct,  intct  Srccntie  i 
J^ufct,  ingcn  50tcnncffcr  (jjcmmc,  here  is  no  food  on  the  ta- 
ble, no  wood  in  the  house,  no  people  at  home. 

5.      a5cgge, 

E.  g.  J^cr  CfC  H  6cggC  %(>,  here  they  are  both. 

*  SDTange  is  a  peculiar  adjective  pronoun  in  the  plural,  which  admits  of 
comparison  ;  of  the  same  kind  is  megen,  much. 

t  Plur.  nogen  signifies  some  one,  but  nogle  signifies  not  mariy. 

X  ^omme  signifies  still  fewer  than  wto^U,  and  has  besides  a  more  indef- 
inite and  doubting  idea  in  itself  than  this,  which  is  more  affirmative  in  its 
signification  5  e.  g.  S)er  ere  nogle  faa  gobe  QS^ger  i  \)^\\^  QSogfamting,  03  fom* 
me  iblanbt  Mjfe  ere  enbt»a  maabeltge  nof,  there  are  some  few  good  bookB  in 
his  library,  and  some  among  these  are  still  moderate  enough. 

3* 


30  PRONOUN. 

Singular.  Plural 

5«((effj*n.  ^ntttijm.  for  both  genders. 

6.     J^^ft*  and        ^\>n't  and  

E.  g.  J5t)cr  ^ant)  (euf)t)et*  ^ant))  tafer  om  Snbtoget, 
every  one  speaks  of  the  entry  ;  Jj^CVt  (ct^t)CVt)  ^J5avn  \>M 
tttf  every  child  knows  it. 

7.  2(L  2((t.  mu. 

E.  g.  2(f  3}?at)en  cv  fpii)^;  alt  goffct  ei*  l>v(x6t ;  afle 
9}?enncffer  eve  Ute  ;  all  the  food  is  eaten  ;  the  whole  nation 
is  slain  ;  all  people  are  out. 

8.  @aal)an,         ©aat>ant.  ©aa^anne. 

E.  g.  ©aaban  en  3Jen ;  faatant  et  2Cv6ei^ ;  facitanue 
SSeuuet* ;  such  a  friend  ;  such  a  labor  ;  such  friends. 

9.  J5t)ovt>au.       J^i^ovbant*  J^^ovbanne. 

10.  iicjeban*  iigebant.  ^igetanne. 

11.  ©ag.  ©figt.  ©Uge. 

E.  g.  J5t)ort)att  en  S'one  ei*  bet  ?  ^nn  n  Iigel)att  eeu,  fom 
l)ent)e^  &&\ln\  ©figen  Opfavfel  maa  ©trajfe^;  what  kind 
of  a  woman  is  that  ?  She  is  one  just  like  her  sister.  Such 
conduct  must  be  punished. 

12.  ©eft).  ©e(t).  ©c(t>. 

E.  g.  3eg  (eft),  I  myself;  SSavuet  fc(t),  the  child  itself; 
Se  felt)/  they  themselves. 

§  105.     Those  which  admit  of  article-addition. 

1.    2(nl)ett.t  anbet  2(nDve. 

E.  g.  Set-  er  eeu  (aliquis)  inte  i  ©tuen,  eg  t>et*  paaei* 
eu  ant)eu  (alius)  ut)enfov ;  t>en  ene  (alter)  t)it  gaae^  eg  Den 

anDen  t)if   itte   bie,  there  is   somebody   within,  and   there 

*  ^^tt  and  enljijetr  signify  the  same  as  (XiU,  which  is  also  expressed  by 
()t)er  eeti,  whereof  the  contrary  is  l)t?etr  anbeii  (compounded  of  l}t)er  and  the 
ordinal  auteit)  which  must  not  be  regarded  as  the  singular  to  l;i?erant»ve. 

t  This  pronominal  adjective  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  ordinal  anben. 


PRONOUN.  31 

Stands  another  without ;  the  one  will  go,  and  the  other  will 
not  remain.  ^k\,  t)Ct  CV  Cn  mt>m  @ag,  yes,  that  is  another 
thing.  Sctte  er  got)t;  alt  ant>ct  (aliud)  {alt  Ht  axmt)  n 
flet,  this  is  good  ;  the  rest  is  bad.  3cg  \)il  gaac  met),  uaat 
H  ant)Ve  (alii)\anffe  tCt,  I  will  follow,  if  the  others  wish  it. 

Singular.  Plural 

gcelteffj^tt.  ^ntettj^tt.  for  both  genders. 

2.  ©amme.         ©amme.  ©amme. 

E.  g.  ®en  famine  9}tan^ ;  M  famme  SSani ;  te  famme 
95xrni ;  the  same  man ;  the  same  child ;  the  same  children. 

3.  govfige.         govvige.  govrige. 

E.g.  2)en  fovvige  Sag;  Det  fcvvige  2Cav;  U  foiTtge 
2(aringev  ;  the  former  day ;  the  former  year  ;  the  former 
years. 

Observations^ 

^  106.  Obs.  1.  When  al  and  tegge  stand  adjective, 
they  are  often  followed  by  the  definite  article ;  e.  g.  al  9}?a' 
Dcu,  alt  golfet,  alle  golfeue;  a[  ten  got)e  5D?aD,  all  the  good 
food  ;  alt  bet  talvige  golf,  the  whole  numerous  nation ;  alle 
t)e  gcDe  9}tccut),  all  the  good  men  ;  SSegge  9}?ccut)eue ;  begge 
t)e  goDe  9}?aub,  both  good  men. 

§  107.  06s.  2.  •  ©el\)  is  mostly  used  by  the  personal 
and  demonstrative  pronouns ;  e.  g.  )eg  felt?,  IjlUI  fe[\),  H 
fel\),  I  myself,  she  herself,  they  themselves. 

The  Pronominal  Substantives  are  the  following, 

^  108.  ©cn  (aliquis),  which  must  not  be  mistaken  ei- 
ther for  the  numeral  ecn  or  the  article  en ;  e.  g.  Nom.  2)er  er 
©en  nbenfor,  fom  \)il  talc  meD  J^evren,  there  is  somebody 
v^^ithout,  who  wishes  to  speak  with  you,  Sir.  Gen.  5)ei*  lig? 
get*  Scn^  J^^^t  i  *2JiubUCt,  somebody's  hat  is  lying  in  the 
window.  Dat.  ©aabau  Q^cw  gii)ev  jeg  altvig  nogct,  to  such 
an  one  I  never  give  any  thing.  Ace.  3eg  faae  ©Cn  tjO^ 
I)am,  I  saw  some  one  with  him.     It  has  no  plural. 


32  VERBS. 

§  109.  ^aWf  which  is  a  collective  that  cannot  be  de- 
clined, and  has  no  plural ;  e.  g.  ^an  flger  M,  it  is  said; 
^iXn  bafintin  fig  iffc  t>c[,  one  does  not  feel  comfortable. 

§  110.  The  pronominal  adverb  t)CV  is  only  used  as  sub- 
ject, when  the  sentence  is  indefinite  (as  in  the  impersonal 
expressions  tet  VCgUCr,  it  rains,  t>U   fctafci*,  it  blows)  ;  e.  g. 

t>n  taU^  (t).  e.  ^afen  f-arc^)  ofte  &cvom,  there  is  often  spo- 
ken thereof;  Ux  fh*it)C^  tnaugC  35^3CV  om  liaxtt,  there  are 
many  books  written  during  the  year. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

VERBS. 
General  Statement. 

^111.  Danish  verbs,  like  the  verbs  in  other  languages, 
are  either  transitive  or  intransitive. 

The  verbs  are  said  to  be  transitive,  when  they  admit  of 
an  immediate  connection  (that  is,  without  a  preposition) 
with  their  complements,  and  their  relation  seems  to  operate 
immediately  upon  another  thing ;  e.  g.  jcg  cfffcr  mine 
sg-avn,  I  love  my  children  ;  jcg  l)iXt>n  t>cn  Uvctclioie,  I  hate 
the  dishonest  one.  The  verbs  are  intransitive  when  they 
admit  of  connection  with  their  complements  only  by  prep- 
ositions;  e.  g.  jeg  t^olcr  paa  mine  5Bcnnef,  I  depend  on  my 
friends ;  ijdn  (jenfj^VCV  til  Ct.  "oi]}  ©elffab,  he  belongs  to  a 
certain  society. 

^  112.  Reflective  verbs  in  Danish  are  so  called  because 
the  thing  expressed  by  the  verb  falls  back,  as  it  were,  upon 
the  subject ;  e.  g.  jcg  foi'l)a|Ul*  mig;  I  over-hasten  myself. 

^113.  Reciprocal  verbs  are  those  that  express  a  thing 
by  which  two  or  more  subjects  are  represented  to  operate 

upon  each  other  mutually ;  e.  g.  jeg  jlaae^  met)  min  2Jen, 
I  am  quarrelling  with  my  friend. 


VERBS.  33 

§  114.  Verbs  are  either  simple  or  compound.  The  lat- 
ter are  formed  by  joining  particles  to  the  simple  verbs; 
e.  g.  ut)fave,  to  export,  is  compounded  of  the  simple  verb 
fave,  to  carry,  and  Ut>,  out. 

§  115.  Danish  verbs,  like  English,  are  varied  by  means 
of  voice,  mode,  tense,  number,  and  person. 

§  116.  There  are  two  voices,  the  active  and  passive. 
The  passive  is  formed  by  the  addition  of  the  letter  ^  to  the 
active,  and  belongs  only  to  transitive  verbs. 

§  117.  There  are  four  modes,  the  infinitive,  indicative, 
optative,  and  imperative.*  Besides,  there  are  two  partici- 
ples, the  present  and  perfect. 

^  118.  There  are  three  tenses  in  the  infinitive,  viz.  the 
present,  perfect,  and  future ;  six  in  the  indicative,  viz.  the 
present,  imperfect,  perfect,  pluperfect,  and  two  futures,  viz. 
absolute  and  exact. 

^  119.  There  are  two  numbers,  the  singular  and  plural. 
The  distinction  of  number  belongs  to  all  the  tenses  of  the 
verb,  except  those  of  the  infinitive. 

^  120.  There  are  three  persons  to  each  number,  corre- 
sponding with  the  personal  pronouns,  viz.  jeg,  t\l,  i)(\\\ ;  \>i, 
3/t)e. 

§  121.  In  Danish,  as  in  English,  many  of  the  verbs  are 
irregular  in  their  conjugation.  These  irregularities  bear  a 
considerable  similarity  to  those  of  English  verbs.  Regular 
verbs  are  conjugated  by  mere  changes  of  termination,  and 
the  aid  of  auxiliary  verbs  ;  irregular  verbs  exhibit  changes 
in  the  substantial  part  of  their  form. 

Auxiliary  Verbs. 
^  122.     The  auxiliary  verbs  in  Danish  are  seven  in  num- 

*  In  Danish,  the  conjunctive  or  subjunctive  mode  is,  in  regard  to  gram- 
mar, not  different  from  the  indicative,  but  only  in  meaning.  It  can  only  be 
distinguished  from  the  indicative  by  certain  conjunctions,  auxiliary  verbs, 
and  the  use  of  the  tenses  j  e.  g.  jcg  bcber,  at  bu  til  (ccfe  SBogeii/ 1  wish  that  you 
may  read  the  book ;  I;tifi?  t)u  bar  Hog,  faa  git  t»u  (b.  e.  tilbe/  ttiMtH  bu  ^Mi) 
bcttf  if  you  were  sensible,  then  you  would  be  gone. 


34 


ber,  viz.  tj^iH,  to  have ;  Mxt,  to  be ;  fclitJe  and  t)OVt)e,  to 
become ;  *  ^ille  and  ffulIC/  to  be  willing,  to  be  obliged, 
and  faae,  to  get. 

§  123.  The  auxiliary  verb  l:i(i\)C  is  conjugated  as  follows :  — 
Indicative. 


Present. 

Singular, 
jeg  i)(ii%  I  have. 
DU  ^av,  thou  hast. 
Ijan  ijdv,  he  has. 

Plural 
1)1  ^al)e,  we  have. 
3  i)a\>t,  you  have. 
tt  tjd'Ot,  they  have. 

Perfect. 

Singular. 
jeg  tjdV  [jaU,  I  have  had. 

Plural. 
t)i  ij<xS>t  tl(i\>t,  we  have  had. 

Future  absol.  (1st  Future.) 
Singular. 


Imperfect. 
Singular. 
jCg  ^vlt)l)C,  I  had. 
t)U  ^at)^e,  thou  hadst. 
ijan  ^at)De,  he  had. 

Plural. 
l)i  ()a\)t)C,  we  had. 
3  t)al)l>e,  you  had. 
H  ^al)t)e,  they  had. 

Pluperfect. 
Singular. 

jeg  ^ai)l)e  f;a\)t,  I  had  had. 

Plural. 
Di  ^al)t>e  ^a\)t,  we  had  had. 

Future  exact.  (2d  Future.) 
Sinorular. 


jeg  ffalorDtl  ijdH,  I  shall  or     jeg  faaci*  il<X\)t,   I  shall  have 
will  have.  had. 

Plural.  Plural. 

l)i  fhlHe  or  Dille  ()at)e,  we  shall     t)i  faae  ija'Ot,  we  shall  have 
or  will  have.  had. 

Optative, 

Perfect. 

Singular. 
;cg  ^at)e  ^at)t,  I  may  have  had. 


Present. 

Singular. 
}t^  t)(iS)(f  I  may  have. 


*  5^3  btber  and  jeg  t)cir&er  are  translated  /  be,  I  will  be,  I  become,  I 
grow,  according  as  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  may  require.  E.  g.  om  j^g 
bixtix  (;jemme/  if  I  be  at  home  j  ijan  fcorber  tommenl)e,  he  will  be  coming; 
(jan  bleb  feeb,  he  grew  fat.  The  verb  torbe  is  used  very  seldom.  The  verb 
bUt>er  may  also  denote  to  remain,  e.  g.  jeg  blber  Ijet:/  I  remain  here;  but 
practice  will  soon  teach  the  different  uses  and  significations  of  these  verbs. 


VERBS.  35 

Plural  Plural 

ti  l)at)e,  we  may  have.  t)i^at)e^at)t,we  may  have  had. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

Singular,  Singular. 

jegffuIIeori)i[Ieljai)e,Ishould    )eg  faae  ijaU,  I  should  have 
or  w^ould  have.  had. 

Plural  Plural 

\>i  ffufle  or  Dide  t)a\)e,  we    t)i  faae  tja^t,  we  should  have 
should  or  would  have.  had. 

Imperative. 
Present.  Perfect. 

Singular,  Singular. 

(Du)   ijfXS),*  ijan  ^aD,  have    (t)u)  ^at)  i)a\>tf  (thou)  have 
(thou),  let  him  have.  had. 

ijixn  f)at)e  tia\>t,  let  him  have 
had. 
Plural  Plural 

(3)  i}(^^tv,    t)e  ()a\)e,  have    (3)  i}<x\>n  t)a\>t,  (you)  have 
(you),  let  them  have.  had. 

De  l)at)e^at)t,  let  them  have 
had. 

Infinitive. 
Present.  Perfect. 

i)(XS)C,  to  have.  ijaU  ijaU,  to  have  had. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

ffufle  or   t)ifle   ^at)e,  to  be    faae  ^al)t,  to  be  about  to  have 
about  to  have.  had. 


*  The  pronouns  of  the  second  person  are  often  omitted  in  imperative 
sentences,  unless  the  conversation  goes  from  the  one  to  the  other  5  e.  g. 
ftrii?  bu  t>et/  t>g  ftrb  bu  httttf  you  write  that,  and  you  write  this  3  as  also 
politeness  demands,  instead  of  this  pronoun,  to  use  the  proper  noun  fe(t> ; 
e.  g.  txn  mtg,  ^r.  ^anfen !  believe  me,  Mr.  Hanson ! 


36 

Present. 
^al)ent>C,  having. 


VERBS. 

Participles. 


Past. 


^at)t,  had. 


§  124.     The  auxiliary  verb  t)OCV*e  is  conjugated   as  fol- 
lows :  — 

Indicative* 

Imperfect. 


Present. 
Singular. 

jeg  er,  I  am. 

Plural. 
t>i  eve,  we  are. 

Perfect. 
Singular, 
jeg  ^ar  Wxtt,  I  have  been 

Plural, 


Singular. 

jeg  Dar,  I  was. 

Plural. 
^i  tJave,  we  were. 

Pluperfect. 
Singular. 

jeg  ^at)De  Davet,  I  had  been. 

Plural. 


t)i  ^ai)e  WXit,  we  have  been.  t)i  \j(CoU  t)avet,we  had  been. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

Singular*  Singular. 

jeg  ffal  or  t)il  Dave,  I  shall  jeg  faaev  Wxtt,  I  shall  have 

or  will  be.  been. 

Plural.  Plural. 

t>iffufIeorDit(et)CCve,weshall  l)i  faae  t)ccvet,  we  shall  have 


or  will  be. 

been. 

Present. 

Optative. 

Perfect. 

Singular. 

jeg  t)ave,  I  may  be. 

jeg   ^at)e  iJCCVet,  I  may  have 
had. 

Plural. 

Plural. 

t)i  i)oeve,  we  may  be. 

t)i  l)at)e  iJOevet,  we  may  have 
had. 

VERBS. 


37 


Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

Singular.  Singular, 

jeg  ffuHc  or  t)if(e  tjare,  I  jeg  faae  Mxtt,  I  should  have 
should  or  would  be.  been. 

Plural.  Plural. 

t)i  ff uf(e  or  MU  Dccve,   we  \>i  faae  t)Cetet,  we  should  have 


should  or  would  be. 

been. 

Imperative. 

Present. 

Perfect. 

Singular. 
(l)U)  Mt,  be  (thou). 

Singular. 

(bu)  ^at)  t)a:vet,  (thou)  hast 

been. 

^an  ^OJve,  let  him  be. 

i^an  ()at)e  tjoevet,  let  him  have 
been. 

P/wraZ. 

Plural 

(3)  l)ccver,  be  (you). 

(3)  ^ciDev  Mut,  (you)  have 
been. 

be  ^O^Vt,  let  them  be. 

be  ^ai^e  t)avet,  let  them  have 
been. 

Infinitive. 

Present. 

Perfect. 

t)ceve,  to  be. 

()at)e  iXSvet,  to  have  been. 

Future  absol. 

Future  exact. 

ffulle  or  t)il(e  t)«ve, 
about  to  be. 

r 

to  be 

faae  MXH,  to  be  about  to 
have  been. 

Participles. 

Present. 

Past. 

t)avenl>e,  being. 

MXttf  been. 

§  125.     The  auxiliary  verbs  6Ii^e  and  l)OVl>e  are  conju- 
gated as  follows  :  — 


VERBS. 


'  Present. 

Singular, 

jeg  6[it)ev,  t>ovt>cr,  I  become. 

Plural 

t)i  bfit)e,  t)OVbe,  we  become. 

Perfect. 
Singular. 

leg  er  6let)en,  er  t)ovl)en,  I 
have  become. 
Plural. 

t)i  eve  6(et)ne,  ere  t)Ott)ne,  we 
have  become'. 

Future  absol. 
Singular. 


Indicative. 

Imperfect. 
Singular, 
jeg  blet),*  I  became. 
Plural. 

t)i  6fe^e,  we  became. 

Pluperfect. 
Singular, 

jeg  t)at  fcletjen,  t)av  t)Ott)en,  I 
had  become. 


Di  l)ave  6Iet)ue,  tjave  t)ov^tte/ 
we  had  become. 

Future  exact. 
Singular, 


jeg  ffat  or  t)il  bli^t,  ffal  or    jeg  faaei*  bfe^en,  faaer  Dovl>en, 

l)il  ^OVl>e,  I  shall  or  will         I  shall  have  become, 
become. 

Plural  Plural. 

\)i  ffufte  or  i)ifle  b(i\)e,  ffufle    t)i  faae  b[et)ne,  faae  Dovline, 
or  \)itle  t)OVDe,  we  shall  or         we  shall  have  become, 
will  become. 

Optative, 


Present. 
Singular. 
jeg  blithe,  ^OVte,  I  may  be- 
come. 

Plural, 

t)i  bli^e,  t)OVt)e,  we  may  be- 
come. 


Perfect. 


jeg  Mn  ble^en,  ixxn  t)crben, 
I  may  have  become. 
Plural 

Di  Ijccve  6Iei)ne,  ^oere  t)or^^e, 
we  may  have  become. 


*  The  imperfect  of  t)orbe,  t>or^,  is  very  old  and  out  of  use,  as  also  the 
verb  itself  is  used  but  very  little.  The  verb  bUbe  is  always  used  instead 
of  it. 


VERBS. 


Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

Singular,  Singular. 

jeg  ffulle  or  t)il(e  6Iit)e,  ffufU  ;eg  faae  b[et)ett,  faae  t)ort>cn, 
or  t)if[e  tJOVtie,  I  should  or         I  should  have  been, 
would  become. 

Plural.  Plural. 

t)i  ffulfe  or  \)illt  6fiDe,  ffuUe  t)i  faae  bfctjue,  faae  ^ot:t)tte, 
or  t)it(e  ^OtHf  we  should         we  should  have  been, 
or  would  become. 


Imperative, 


Present. 


Perfect. 


Singular, 

(Ml)    6fit),    ^OVte,    become 

(thou). 
J;an  blit)e,  t)ovt)e,   let   him 

become. 

Plural, 

(3)  fclitjev,  t)OvDer,  become 
(you). 

t>e  6[it)e,  t)Ott)e,  let  them  be- 
come. 


(bu)  t)Oft  bfet>ctt/  Doer  t)Ot:ten, 

(thou)  hast  become. 
tjan  t)oere  blel^ett,  t^oite  t^or- 

^eu^  let  him  have  become. 
Plural. 
(3)  i)avev  lJIe\)ne,t)o:vet*  Dot^^ 

ne/  (you)  have  become. 
tit  \>ctvt  bU\>nt,  Mxt  t)ovt)ne, 

let  them  have  become. 


Infinitive, 
Present.  Perfect. 

H\\>t,  t)0^:^e,  to  become.  Wte  b(et)en,  t^ceve  Dorbeii/  to 

have  become. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact, 

ffuffe  or  i)ille  Mit)e,  ffufle  or  faae  bUs>tn,  faae  ijovben,  to 
Diffe  t)Orte,  to  be  about  to  be  about  to  have  become, 
become. 

Participles. 
Present.  Past. 

bUt)ent)e,t)ovt)en^e,  becoming.    He^en,  t)Ovtett,  become. 


40  VERBS. 

§  126.     The  auxiliary  verbs  t)i(Ie  and  ffuUc  are  conju- 
gated as  follows  :  — 

Indicative, 
Present.  Imperfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

leg  t)il,  ffaft,  I  will,  shall.        jeg  tjifDe   ffutt)e,   I  would, 

should. 
Plural.  Plural. 

^i  t)ine,  fMe,  we  will,  shall.    t)i  Difbe,  ffuft)e,  we  would, 

should. 

Perfect.  Pluperfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

mijav  billet,  (jar  ffuftet,  I    jeg  fjaDDe  Dillet,  ^atjbe  ffudet, 
have  been  about.  I  had  been  about. 

Plural.  Plural. 

t)i  ijau  t)ilfet,  ijdH  ftullet,    t)i  ()at)De  Diflet,  ^atJDe  ffuffet, 
we  have  been  about.  we  had  been  about. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

Singular. 

jeg  ff  af  t)ilfe,*  I  shall  be  about.  (  Wanting. ) 

Plural. 
i>i  ffulle  t)it(e,  we  shall  be 
about. 

Optative, 
Present.  Perfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

m  ^ilf^/  ffullc,  I  may  be    jcg  tjaU  Dillct,  i)<XH  ffulfet/ 1 
about.  may  have  been  about. 

Plural,  Plural. 

t)i  Diffe,  ffuUe,  we  may  be    i)i  {)at)e  t)ilkt,  ^at)e  ftuKet, 
about.  we  may  have  been  about. 

*  (SfuUe  has  no  future  absol.  in  any  of  the  modes. 


VERBS. 


41 


Future  absol. 

Singular. 

;eg  ffuffe  Mk,  I  should  be 
about. 

Plural. 
\>i  ffulfe  S>iikf  we  should  be 
about. 

Imperative. 
(  Wanting. ) 

Infinitive, 


Future  exact. 
(Wanting.) 


Present, 
DiUe,  ffulle,  to  be  about. 

Future  absol. 
ffufle  MU,  to  be  obliged  to 
be  about. 


Perfect. 
tjdU  Diflet,  t)as>t  ff udet,  to 
have  been  about. 

Future  exact. 
(Wanting.) 


Participles. 
Present.  Past. 

t)illent>e,    ffudente,    being      Wkt,  ffuIUt,  been  about, 
about. 

§  127.    The  auxiliary  verb  faae  is  conjugated  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

Indicative, 

Imperfect. 


Present. 
Singular. 

jeg  faaev,  I  get. 

Plural 

t)i  faae,  we  get. 

Perfect. 
Singular. 

leg  ^ar  faaet,  I  have  got. 
4# 


Singular. 

jeft  fif,  I  got. 

Plural. 
tl  jtf,  we  got. 

Pluperfect, 
Singular. 

jeg  ^at)t)e  faaet,  I  had  got. 


42  VERBS. 

Plural.  Plural. 

s>\  {)at)e  faaet,  we  have  got.  t)i  ^^s>H  faaet,  we  had  got. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

Singular.  Singular. 

)e9  ffaf  or  s>x{  faae,  I  shall  jeg  faaev  faaet,  I  shall  have 
or  will  get.  got. 

Plural.  Plural. 

t)i  ff ude  or  t)ille  faae,  we  shall  t)i  faae  faaet,  we  shall  have 


or  will  get. 

got. 

Present. 

Optative, 

Perfect. 

Singular. 

jeg  faae,  I  may  get. 

Plural. 
Di  faae,  we  may  get. 

Future  absol. 

Singular, 

jeg  ^at)e  faaet,  I  may  have 
got. 

Plural. 

t)i  ^at)e  faaet,  we  may  have 
got. 

Future  exact. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

;eg    ffufle  or  t>i((e  faae,  I    jeg  faae  faaet,  I  should  have 
should  or  would  get.  got. 

Plural.  Plural. 

t)i  ffufle  or  tJille  faae,  we    t)i  faae  faaet,  we  should  have 
should  or  would  get.  got. 

Imperative* 
Present.  Perfect. 

Singular,  Singular. 

(t)u)    faae,    ^an    faae,  get    (tit)  ^at)  faaet,  (thou)  have 
(thou),  let  him  get.  got ;   ^an  Ija^e  faaet,  let 

him  have  got. 
Plural,  Plural, 

(3)  faaev,  De  faae,  get  (you),    (3)  ^at)ev  faaet,  (you)  have 
let  them  get.  got ;    U    ()a\)e    faaet,  let 

them  have  got. 


VERBS.  43 

Infinitive. 
Present.  Perfect, 

faae,  to  get.  f^atje  faaet,  to  have  got. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact, 

ffulle  or  \>'\{k  faae,  to  be    faae  faaet,  to  be  about  to 
about  to  get.  have  got. 

Participles, 
Present.  Past, 

faaent)e,  getting.  faaet,  got. 

Regular  Verbs. 

§  128.  The  regular  verbs  are  divided  into  two  classes; 
(a.)  those  which  have  the  termination  et>e  in  the  imperfect, 
consisting  of  three  syllables,  and  ending  in  et  in  the  past 
participle,  belong  to  the  first  conjugation  ;  and  (6.)  those 
that  have  the  termination  te  in  the  imperfect,  consisting  of 
two  syllables,  and  ending  in  t  in  the  past  participle,  belong 
to  the  second  conjugation. 

The  regular  verb  effte,  to  love,  is  conjugated  according 
to  the  first  conjugation,  as  follows  :  — 

Active  Voice. 

Indicative. 
Present.  Imperfect. 

Singular,  Singular. 

jeg  efffer,  I  love.  jeg  efffe^e,  I  loved. 

t)u  elffer,  thou  lovest.  t>\x  elffeDe,  thou  lovedst. 

^an  e(ffer,  he  loves.  Ijan  elffet>e,  he  loved. 

Plural,  Plural. 

l)i  elffe,  we  love.  t)i  efffete,  we  loved. 

3  e(ffe,  you  love.  3  z{\hU,  you  loved. 

i>e  efffe,  they  love.  it  efffeDe,  they  loved. 


44  VERBS. 

Perfect.  Pluperfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

jeg  ijat  elffct,  I  have  loved.  jcg  ^at)t)e  elfirct,  I  had  loved. 

Plural.  Plural. 

t)i  ijdU  Clffet,  we  have  loved.  t)i  ija\>H  cfffet,  we  had  loved. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

Singular.  Singular, 

jeg  ffat  or  M  elfte,  I  shall  jeg  faaer  ctffet,  I  shall  have 
or  will  love.  loved. 

Plural.  Plural, 

\>i  ffude  or  Dille  elffe,  we  t)i  facie  cfffet,  we  shall  have 


shall  or  will  love. 

loved. 

Present. 

Optative, 

Perfect. 

Singular, 

jeg  e(fte,  I  may  love. 

Plural, 
t)i  elffe,  we  may  love. 

Singular, 

jeg  i}<XU  elffet,  I  may  have 

loved. 

Plural, 
\>i  i}a\>t  efffet,  we  may  have 

loved. 

Future  absol. 

Future  exact. 

Singular, 

Singular. 

jeg  fhiKe  or  t)i[{e  elf f e,  I  should    jeg  faae  elff et,  I  should  have 
or  would  love.  loved. 

Plural.  Plural, 

t)i  ffude  or  t)i(Ie  elf f  e,  we  should    ^i  faae  elff et,  we  should  have 
or  would  love.  loved. 

Imperative, 
Present.  Perfect. 

Singular,  Singular, 

elft    (t)u),    Ijan   elffe,   love    ij<x^  efffet  (t)u),  have  loved 
(thou), let  him  love.  (thou). 

ij<xn  i}(i\>z  efffet,  let  him  have 
loved. 


VERBS.  45 

Plural.  Plural, 

effter(3),t)ee{fte,love(you),    i)a\>n  elffet  (3),  have  loved 
let  them  love.  (you), 

tie  ^a^e  elftet/  let  them  have 
loved. 

Infinitive, 
Present.  Perfect, 

efffe,  to  love.  ijiX\>t  efffet,  to  have  loved. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact, 

f  f Ulle  or  ^ille  e(ff  C,  to  be  about    faac  e(ff  et,  to  be  about  to  have 
to  love.  loved. 

Participles, 
Present.  Past. 

c(ffenl>e,  loving.  efjfet,  loved. 

Passive  Voice. 

The  active  verbs  are  formed  into  passives,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  an  ^,  in  the  following  manner  :  — 

Indicative, 
Present.  Imperfect. 

Singular.  Singular, 

jeg  efffe^,  I  am  loved.  jeg  elffete^,  I  was  loved. 

Plural,  Plural. 

^i  elfte^,  we  are  loved.  ^i  elffcte^z  we  were  loved. 

Perfect.  Pluperfect. 

Singular.  Singular, 

jcg   et*   efffct,  I   have  been     jeg  Mv   elffet,  I  had  been 
loved.  loved. 

Plural.  Plural. 

t)i  eve  elffeDe,  we  have  been    t)i  ^ave  elffete,  we  had  been 
loved.  loved. 


46 


VERBS. 


Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

Singular.  Singular. 

jeg  ffal  or  Dil  ctffe^,  I  shall  jeg  faaer  Wxzt  elffct,  I  shall 

or  will  be  loved.  have  been  loved. 

Plural.  Plural. 

ti  ffulle  or  bide  elffe^,  vi^e  ti  faae  ijcevet  efffebc,  we  shall 

shall  or  will  be  loved.  have  been  loved. 

Optative, 


Present. 
Singular. 
jeg  Clffc^,  I  may  be  loved. 

Plural. 
t)i  elffe^,  we  may  be  loved. 

Future  absol. 
Singular, 

jeg  ftufle  or  \>'\[k  efffe^,  I    jeg  faae  Wxit  elftec,  I  should 

should  or  would  be  loved.  have  been  loved. 

Plural.  Plural. 

i)i  ffufle  or  Dilte  elffe^,  we    t)i  faae  DccvetelffeDe,  we  should 
should  or  would  be  loved.  have  been  loved. 


Perfect. 
Singular, 

;eg  Wu  elftet,  I  may  have 

been  loved. 

Plural, 
bi  t)(Xve  efffebe,  we  may  have 

been  loved. 

Future  exact. 
Singular. 


Imperative, 
Present. 
Singular, 
elffe^  (t)U),  be  (thou)  loved 


I)an  efffe^,  let  him  be  loved. 

Plural, 
Clffe^  (3),  be  (you)  loved. 

U  Zl{h^,  let  them  be  loved. 


Perfect, 

Singular, 

t)0:t*  efffet  (t)U),  have  (thou) 

been  loved. 
ij^n  Wxt  efffet,  let  him  have 

been  loved. 

Plural. 

Dccver  efffete  (3),  have  been 

loved  (you). 
l)e  Wxt  elffete,  let  them  have 

been  loved. 


VERBS.  47 

Infinitive. 

Present.  Perfect. 

cfffe^,  to  be  loved.  i)ate  efffet,   to   have    been 

loved. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact, 

ffufle  or  t)ille  elffe^,  to  be    faae  t)ccvet  efffet,  to  be  about 
about  to  be  loved.  to  have  been  loved, 

§  129,     The  regular  verb  tcifc,*  to  travel,  is  conjugated 
according  to  the  second  conjugation,  as  follows  :  — 

Indicative, 

Present,  Imperfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

jeg  veifer,  I  travel,  do  travel,  jeg  t*eif?e,  I  travelled,  or  did 

or  am  travelling.  travel. 

Plural.  Plural. 

t)i  teife,  we  travel,  do  travel,  t)i  tcille,  we  travelled, 
or  are  travelling. 

Perfect.  Pluperfect, 
Singular.  Singular. 
jeg  ijav  veip,   I   have  trav-  jeg  f)aDl>e  rei|I,  I  had  trav- 
elled, elled. 

Plural.  Plural, 
l)i  t)(XH  Xtift,  we  have  trav-  t)i  ^at)t>e  reijl,  we  had  trav- 
elled, elled. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

Singular,  Singular, 

;eg  ffaf  (t)il)  veife,  I  shall    jeg  faaev  vei|l,  I  shall  have 
(will)  travel.  travelled. 

Plural.  Plural. 

t)i  ffufle  {i>i{k)  veife,  we  shall    Di  faae  Xti\t,  we  shall  have 
(will)  travel.  travelled. 

*  This  verb  being  intransitive  has  no  passive.    This  is,  however,  no  dis- 
tinction for  the  second  conjugation,  as  many  are  transitive. 


48 

VERBS, 

Present. 

Optative. 

Perfect. 

Singular, 
M  ^^i{^f  I  "^^y  travel. 

Singular. 

jeg  i)<XH  xn\\,  I   may  have 
travelled. 

Plural 
t)i  vcife,  we  may  travel. 

Plural 

^i  ijiXH  VCijI,  we  may  have 
travelled. 

Future  absol. 

Future  exact. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

jeg  ffulle  (^ille)  veife,  I  should    ;eg  faae  xn\\,  I  should  have 
or  would  travel.  travelled. 

Plural  Plural 

t)i   ffude    (t)i(Ie)    veife,   we    \>i  faae  veijlt,  we  should  have 
should  or  would  travel,  travelled. 

Imperative, 
Present.  Perfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

tei^  (t>u),  travel  (thou).  f)at)   vei)l    (I'U),   have    trav- 

elled (thou). 
Plural  Plural 

teifcr  (3),  travel  (you).  ijaUx  xn\t  (3),  have  trav- 

elled (you). 

Infinitive, 

Present.  Perfect. 

veife,  to  travel.  ()a1)e  teill,  to  have  travelled. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact, 

ftude  (i)i(Ie)  veife,  to  be  about    faae  vei)l,  to  be  about  to  have 
to  travel.  travelled. 

Participles, 
Present.  Past. 

veifen^e,  travelling.  vei|T,  travelled. 


VERBS. 


49 


Irregular  Verbs. 

§  130.  The  irregularities  of  these  verbs  consist  in  their 
all  having,  in  the  imperfect  tense  of  the  active  voice,  only 
one  syllable,  and  that,  besides,  most  of  them  change  the 
vowel  of  the  principal  form,  which  vowel-change  also  often 
takes  place  in  the  past  participle, 

^  131.  As  a  specimen  of  the  conjugation  of  irregular 
verbs,  I  present  the  active  voice  of  the  verb  jtn^e,  to  find. 
The  passive  voice  of  all  irregular  verbs,  that  is,  of  all  irreg- 
ular transitive  verbs,  is  formed  like  that  of  regular  verbs. 

Indicative, 


Present. 

Singular. 

;eg  ftul)er,  I  find. 

Plural. 
\>\  jtnt>e,  we  find. 

Perfect. 

Singular. 
jcg  {)av  filUtJet,  I  have  found. 

Plural. 
t)i  f;at)e  fuuDet,  we  have  found. 

Future  absol. 
Singular. 

jcg  ffat  (Di()  ftu^e,  I  shall 
(will)  find. 

Plural. 

S>\  fhide  (t)i(le)  jtute,  we  shall 
(will)  find. 


Imperfect. 
Singular. 

;e<j  fanl)t,  I  found. 

Plural. 
t)i  fan^t,  we  found. 

Pluperfect. 

Singular. 

f eg  ^<xS>Xft  flm^eC,  I  had  found. 

Plural, 

\>'x  ^at)te  funbet,  we  had  found . 

Future  exact. 
Singular. 

jcg  faaer  funtet,  I  shall  have 

found. 

Plural, 
S>'\  faae  fun^et,  we  shall  have 

found. 


Present. 
Singular. 
jcg  ftnt)e,  I  may  find. 


Optative, 


Perfect. 


Singular, 
jcg  ^at)C  fiml>et,  I  may  have 
found. 


50  VERBS. 

Plural,  Plural. 

\)i  ftube,  we  may  find.  t)i  ^al)e  fmxHt,  we  may  have 

found. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

Singular.  Singular. 

;eg  ff  ulle  (t)ifle)  ftnt)e,  I  should    jeg  faae  fimt>et,  I  should  have 

or  would  find.  found. 

Plural.  Plural. 

ti   ffulle    (t)il(e)  ftn^e,    we    i)i  faae  funbet,  we  should  have 
should  or  would  find.  found. 

^  Imperative. 

Present.  Perfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

ftnb  (tu),  find  (thou).  f;al)  fuaibCt  (Mi),  have  found 

(thou). 
Plural.  Plural. 

ftntev  (3),  find  (you),  ^a1)Ct  fuul>Ct  (3), have  found 

(you). 

Infinitive. 
Present.  Perfect, 

jtttte,  to  find.  l;a^e  fun^et,  to  have  found. 

Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

(luIfe(t)ifIe)ttnt)e,tobeabout    faae  fun^et,  to  be  about  to 
to  find,  have  found. 

Participles. 
Present.  Past. 

ftnbent)e,  finding.  fuatliet,  found. 

Defective  Verbs. 

§  132.  These  verbs  could  partly  be  classed  under  the 
second  conjugation,  but  they  have  no  passive  voice,  and  no 
present  imperative  mode  in  the  active.     They  are  six  in 


VERBS.  51 

number;  viz.  bui*t)e,  ought,  tUXt>C,  to  dare,  funite,  to  be 
able,  ffude,*  maatte,  to  be  allowed,  t)i(Ie. 

Indicative. 
Present.  Imperfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

[[^  )        _    ^_  [[^  )bmt>c,  tnxH,  fuuDe, 


Du    >  b&v,  t&tf  fan,  maae 

Plural.  Plural. 


mavatte. 


Pel 

Singuiui.  omguiar. 

Har   burtet,    tuvtet,  K5  |l)at)De,  buvtiet,  tuvDet, 

j     funnet,  xmatuu  ?"^  j     hniuet,  maattet. 


^) ,  ^  ^ )  buvDc,   tuvt)e,   fuuDe, 

Perfect.  Pluperfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

m 

Ml 

Plural.  Plural. 

^nf)at)e   buvDet,    tuvt)ct,  ^^  UaDbe   hntM,   mm, 

^^  \     immtf  maattet*  ^  j     funnet,  maatut 

Future  absol.  Future  exact. 

Singular.  Singular. 

K5  Uhi  bxittt,  tnxU,  imu  K^  H^aer  buvDet,  tnxM, 

ban  )     ^^^'  waatte.  l^^^  j     f unnet,  maattct. 

Plural.  Plural. 

^  UMk  bxixH,  tuvbe,  fum  ^^ )  f^^^  '^"^'^^f'  f«^*^^f/  ?««-' 

^^  j     ue,  maatte*  ^^  j     h^^/  i^^^^^^t- 

Present.  Perfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

)<^B  UuvDc,  tuvDe,  fmme,  '^^  ^f?^^e  bixvm,  tuvtct, 

Sui     ^-^-^^^^-  Tan^     inxxxxH,  xnmut 

*  <SfttUe  and  ti((e  are  passed  by  here,  as  they  are  conjugated  among  the 
auxiliary  verbs. 


52 


Plural. 

"^  )  buvDe,  tuvt)e,  hum, 

Future   absol. 
Singular. 

m  UhiKe  {\)ilk)  bnv\>c,  tiiv^ 
J     U,  funne,  maatte. 

Plural. 

^g  j     ^e,  funne,  maatu. 


Plural. 

2*  r     f  unnet,  maattct. 


te  j 


Future  exact. 
Singular, 

^^^  )faae  bnvM,  tuvtct, 
ban  j     f ""^^^^'  maattct. 

faac  6nvl)ct,  tuvtct,  fun- 
net,  maattet. 


Imperatuie^ 

Present.  Perfect. 

Singular. 

(Wanting.)  ^atj  (t)u)  burtet,  tuvtet,  fun- 

net,  maattet. 

Plural. 

^at)ev    (3)    bnvtet,  tuvt)et, 
funnet,  maattet, 

Irifinitive, 
Present.  Perfect. 

hivt)e,  tuvt)e,  funne,  xmmt.      ijiVoz  6uvtet,  tuvt)et,  funnet, 

Future  absol.  Future  exact, 

ffufle    (t)i((e)    bui-te,  twxU,    faae  bwxUt,  i\xx\itt,  funnet, 
funne,  maatte.  maattet. 

Participles, 
Present.  Past. 

buv^enDe,  tuft>enl>e,  funnen-    buvt)et,  twxut,  funnet,  maat- 
te, maatteuDe.  tet» 


VERBS.  53 

Observations  on  the  Verbs. 

§  133.  Obs.  1.  With  the  intransitive  verbs  t)C£VC,  6Iit)e, 
^Ct)te,  as  also  the  passive  falter,  the  complement,  when  it 
is  a  noun,  stands  in  the  nominative ;  e.  g.  ij^w  cr  ©e(t)at, 
he  is  a  soldier ;  i)m  6fi^CV  Captain  til  9ti;taav,  he  is  to  be 
captain  next  new-year ;  ^au  tjeDtei*  spctev,  his  name  is  Pe- 
ter ;  Ijan  fatDe^  gveDCfif,  he  is  called  Frederick.  Never- 
theless, the  verbs  \)0:ve  and  b(i\)C  have,  if  the  pronoun  ^it 
is  the  subject,  their  complement,  when  this  is  a  personal 
pronoun,  in  the  accusative  ;  e.  g.  tet  CV  mig  ;  t)Ct  CV  t»ig ; 
i)et  CI*  mig,  font  ^av  gjovt  t)Ct,  it  is  I  who  has  done  it;  lit 
blitjcv  ^am,  fom  ^av  tjccvet  5D?etlei-  Ijcvfot,  it  will  be  he  who 
has  done  this ;  or  the  contrary,  Dct  CV  53ovtCt,  tn  ffal 
fcerttagc,  it  is  the  table  which  you  shall  take  away;  where 
^^OV^Ct  is  nominative. 

^  134.  Obs,  2.  Some  verbs  receive  their  object  in  the 
dative,  most  of  which  are  such  verbs  as  contain  the  idea  of 
something;  e.  g.  ^ennc  SomcMc  tet)agcv  ntig  (dative),  this 
comedy  pleases  me;  ©^nncn  ligncv  *  (that  is,  ev  lit)  ftu 
iD?Ot)ev,  the  son  looks  like  his  mother;  t)Ct  ni;ttei*  mig  iffc, 
it  is  of  no  use  to  me. 

§  135.  Obs,  3.  Some  double  transitive  verbs  take  both 
their  objects  in  the  accusative ;  e.  g.  l}an  fat^ev  fig  hl^\)ig, 
he  calls  himself  Ludwig ;  l}an  lavcv  min  ®&\\iX  ©ngclff, 
he  teaches  my  sister  English. 

§  136.  Obs,  4.  Some,  both  intransitives  and  transitives, 
are  united  in  the  accusative  with  a  kind  of  pleonastic  ob- 
ject, of  the  same  signification  as  the  verb;  e.  g.  l}an  git  fin 
®ang,  he  went  his  way  ;  ijiKW  ff  j-O^l)  Ct  @hl^,  he  fired  a  shot ; 
likewise,  (\t  IXQwwwz  en  '^XQXXi,  to  dream  a  dream  ;  &c.  In 
like  manner,  some  intransitives  become  now   and  then,  as 


*  On  the  contrary,  (jan  ttgttcr  (that  is,  fammenttgner)  ftu  ^^ige  (accusative) 
mcb  en  lilie,  he  compares  his  maiden  with  a  lily. 

5* 


54  VERBS. 

actual  transitives,  united  with  an  object  in  the  accusative  ; 
8.  g.  ijim  gif  fin  Tlmt)  trcct,  that  is,  Inm  trcettct>e  l)am  Ht> 
at  gaae  )lcevf t,  she  beat  her  husband  in  walking ;  likewise, 
at  (^be  ecu  3f);cl,  to  run  one  to  death. 

§  137.  Obs.  5.  Some  verbs,  as  the  six  defective  verbs, 
the  verbs  later,  |U*CCbcr,  mCCgtCV,  &c.,  are  seldom  or  never 
used  with  any  other  object  than  an  infinitive ;  e.  g.  ^an  b&V 
^i&n  t)ct,  he  ought  to  do  it;  gvum  Iat>ei*  bete,  om  t>e  s>\i 

fomme,  the  lady  requests  you  to  come  ;  ):)an  |lv«bet*  at 
fuftfeve  fit  livbnt),  he  strives  to  finish  his  work  ;  tjm  magtei* 
ueppe  at  bare  faatau  en  ^^i;vt)e,  he  is  scarcely  able  to  carry 
such  a  burden.* 

The  verb  gitev  is  fi*equently  united  with  the  past  partici- 
ple instead  of  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.  ^un  giteu  neppe  V&Xt  fig 
(for  v^ve  fig)  af  ©tet)Ct,  she  is  too  lazy  to  move  a  step. 

^  138.  Obs.  6.  The  Danish  language  has  certain  forms 
of  expression,  in  which  a  verb  in  the  passive,  although  its 
subject  has  nothing  to  agree  with  in  the  next  sentence,  ap- 
pears in  the  participial  mode,  and  forms  a  s^rt  of  consequen- 
tial accusative,  in  which  the  participle  agrees  with  its  sub- 
ject in  gender,  number,  and  case ;  e.  g.  "^Htt  fagt,  git  l^an 
bovt,  t.  e.  t)a  Mtt  t)av  fagt,  this  said,  he  went  away.  In  a 
like  manner  are  the  verbal  compounded  adjectives  or  parti- 
ciples used,  which  are  not  used  as  verbs ;  e.  g.  I) an  gjOVtC 
tet  mig  naft)it)ente,  he  did  it  without  my  knowledge. 

§  139.  Obs,  7.  When  the  subject  3  or  2)e  is  used  in- 
stead of  the  second  person  in  the  singular,  the  verb  stands 
nevertheless  in  the  singular ;  e.  g.  3  ffall  gaae,  ^eter,  you 
shall  go,  Peter ;  2)e  bllDev  t)og  i}ei*  til  SD?it»t)ag,  min  ^en, 
you  will  remain  here  to  dinner,  my  friend  ;  not,  3  ftuKe, 
2)e  bli\)t 

§  140.      Obs.  8.     There  are  peculiar  constructions  of  the 


*  When  these  verbs  are  used  with  the  pronoun  ttt  as  the  object,  the  infin- 
itive gj^re  is  understood  5  e.  g,  tet  tH  jeg,  t).  e.  t»et  t^r  jeg  9J-^re,  I  dare  do  it. 


VERBS. 


55 


Danish  language,  when  the  active  infinitive  is  used,  espe- 
cially after  adjectives,  in  the  signification  of  the  infinitive 
passive ;  e.  g.  tjau  cv  Ict  at  t>\?cvtafe  (D.  e.  ijixn  ot)cvtafc^  (et), 
he  is  easily  persuaded. 

§  141.  Obs.9.  In  regard  to  number  and  person,  the 
verb  must  agree  with  its  subject ;  e.  g.  2)u  t)ect>)l,  t)Ct  t)av  CU 
au^cn  @ag  mcb  mici,  thou  knowest,  it  was  a  different  case 
with  me  :  gugtene  f[i;t)e  i  iuften,  the  birds  fly  in  the  air. 

^  142.  Obs.  10.  When  a  verb  has  more  than  one  sub- 
ject, it  must  stand  in  the  plural,  although  these  separately 
are  singular,  when  they  are  not  united  by  disjunctive  con- 
junctions ;  e.  g.  iut>\)ig  eg  ^an^  ^rot)ev  tjau  av\)ct  mange 
spengc,  Louis  and  his  brother  have  inherited  much  money. 

§  143.  Obs.  11.  When  a  subject  in  a  sentence  is  un- 
derstood from  a  preceding  sentence,  the  verb  must  never- 
theless agree  with  the  subject  understood ;  e.  g.  55>aul)evne 
ffjultc  fig  in  en  ®v&ft,  lagDc  an  paa  govmant)cn,  og  f^;-a^e 
bam  paa  ©tetct),  the  peasants  aimed  at  the  leader,  and  shot 
him  on  the  spot. 

§  144.  Obs,  12.  When  two  verbs  come  together  in  one 
sentence,  the  last  must  stand  in  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.  |eg  t)il 
tic,  I  will  be  silent. 


§  145.     Catalogue  of  some  of  the  most  common  Irregular 
Verbs, 


Infinitive. 

6et>e,  to  pray. 

bite,  to  bite. 
lnn^c,  to  bind. 

bt)tc,  to  bid. 
bin)t>e,  to  break. 
bfftt>t)C,  to  possess. 
blM,  to  remain. 
bvingC,  to  bring. 
lHn|U,  to  burst. 


Present. 

;eg  bct)er. 

)cg  6it)cr. 
;cg  Inntcr. 
;eg  bi}Dcv. 
jcg  bvi^Der. 
jeg  bcft^^cl^ 
;cg  Hit)cr. 
jeg  bringer. 
jeg  bvijUr. 


Imperfect. 

jeg  bat). 

jeg  bet). 
;eg  bant>t. 
jeg  b&t>. 
jeg  bv^D. 
jeg  bcfat). 
jeg  ble\). 
jeg  brang. 
jeg  bvall. 


Past. 

Jbe^etor 

?be^t. 

biDt. 

bnnt)et. 

bn^t. 

bvut>t. 

befaDt. 

ble\)en. 

bvunget. 

bvuften. 


56 


VERBS. 


Infinitive, 
bare,  to  bear. 
buvt)C,  ought, 
tVMClC,  to  draw, 
tviffc,  to  drink. 
t)Vi\?C,  to  drive. 
ftnt)e,  to  find. 
fin)fe,  to  freeze, 
faae,  to  get. 
jtl)t)C,  to  flow. 
fIi)Ve,  to  fly. 
fcrc\aac,  to  perish, 
gitje,  to  give, 
gra\)e,  to  dig. 
gribc,  to  grasp. 

9i;t)C,  to  pour. 

gaac,  to  walk, 
greet) e,  to  weep. 

IjCDe,    l)CttC,  to   be  ) 
called  (by  name).  ) 
^jc(pc,  to  help. 
Ijollc,  to  hold, 
jage,  to  drive,  hunt, 
fuibc,  to  pinch, 
fomme,  to  come, 
hmuc,  to  be  able. 
hn;be,  to  creep, 
lee,  to  laugh, 
ligge,  to  lie  down. 
laDe,  to  let,  to  allow. 
lit)e,  to  suffer. 
ICKgge,  to  lay,  put, 
or    place   some 
thing. 
[i;De,  to  lie. 
pibe,  to  whistle. 

rite,  to  ride. 

vil^e,  to  tear, 
fee,  to  see. 


Present. 

jeg  barer,  beer. 
)c3b4)r,Iought. 
jeg  brager. 
|eg  Drifter. 
)eg  tri^er. 
jeg  jtuDer. 

jeg  fvxaer. 
jeg  t^i}ber. 
jeg  tli)\)er. 
I  eg  forgaaer. 
jeg  git)cr. 
I  eg  grat)er. 
jeg  griber. 

eg  gi;ber. 


4 


eg  gaaer. 
eg  grccber. 

leg  ^eber. 

leg  t))efper. 
ieg  poller, 
leg  jager. 
leg  fulber. 
eg  fommer. 
eg  fan. 
ieg  fri}ber. 
ieg  leer. 
H  ligscv. 
ieg  (aDer. 
leg  liber. 


jeg  fpi>er. 
jeg  piber. 

jeg  riber. 

jeg  rit?er. 
jeg  feer. 


Imperfect. 

ieg  bar. 
ieg  bur  be. 
eg  t)rog. 
ieg  bracf. 
eg  bre\). 
eg  fmtt 
leg  f{'&^. 
eg  Itf. 
ieg  jt^b. 
eg  ^H' 
eg  forgif. 
eg  ga\). 
grot), 
jeg  greb. 

jeg  gj^b. 

jeg  gif. 
jeg  grab. 

jeg  ^eb. 

jeg  l}jalp. 
jeg  l}olt)t. 
jeg  jog. 
jeg  imk 
jeg  fom. 
jeg  hinbe. 
jeg  fr^b. 
jeg  [oe. 
jeg  laae. 
jeg  (ob. 
jeg  leeb. 


jeg  Ug. 
jeg  peb. 

jeg  reb. 

jeg  re\). 
jeg  faae. 


Past. 

baaret. 

burDet. 

traget. 

DruePet. 

bre\)et. 

fiiubet. 

frofl-et. 

fvxaet. 

jl^get. 

forgaaet. 

git)et. 

gra\)et. 

grcbet. 

|gi}betor 

(gi;^f. 

gaaet. 

graDt. 

i  l)eDet, 

)  i)m. 

t}jutpet. 

^oKet. 

jaget. 

hiebet. 

fommee. 

hinuet. 

leet. 
figget. 
laoet. 
libet,abt. 


'  jeg  lagger.         jeg  fagbe.    (agt. 


(4^get, 

j  rebeu, 
( ribt. 
re\)et. 
feet. 


ADVERBS. 


57 


Infinitive.  Present. 

fiDbe,  to  sit.  jeg  flt>^ct^ 

fuige,  to  sneak.  jfg  fuic^Ct*. 

fpint)e,  to  spin.  ;eg  fpiutcr. 

fpringc,  to  spring.  jeg  fpvingcv. 

Jlige,  to  ascend.  jeg  ltigei\ 

|He(c,  to  steal.  jeg  j^iefcr. 

jiaae,  to  stand.  jeg  jlaaer. 

fMVge,  to  swear.  jeg  ftJCCVgCl*. 

ffi;De,  to  shoot.  jeg  ff^ter. 

ftjinte,  to  vanish.  jcg  ft)iuDer. 

ff icere,  to  cut.  jef  ff iccvev. 

fi;n.Ac,  to  sing.  jeg  f^ngev. 

fi)nfe,  to  sink.  |eg  fi;nfer. 

fh-it)e,  to  write.  )eg  ffriucr. 
fcetCC,  to  set,  to  place.    ;cg  fcettcr. 

ta^c,  to  take.  )fg  tagcv. 

tvccffe,  to  draw.  jeg  trccffcr. 

tvctfe,  to  hit.  jeg  tvoeffer. 

tvatx,  to  step.  jeg  tvoet>er. 

t\)iuge,  to  force.  jeg  tt)ingei% 

^in^e,  to  gain.  jeg  l)lut»ei*. 

t)it)e,  to  know.  jeg  t)et). 

t?rit)e,  to  wring.  jeg  \)vi^er. 

tjccve,  to  be.  jeg  er. 

The  rest  of  the  irregular  verbs  will 
practice. 


Imperfect.  Past. 

jeg  fab.  iaH. 

jeg  fueg.  fueget. 

jeg  fpaul)t.  fpuntet. 

jeg  fprang.  fpi-uuget. 

jeg  t^eg.  llcget. 

jeg  jliaf.  jtiaafet. 

jeg  jut).  jUaet. 

jeg  ff j^t).  fhibt. 

jegf\)aut)t.  fi>imbet. 

jeg  ffar.  fhiavet. 

jeg  fang,  fuuget. 

jeg  fauf.  funtet. 

jeg  ffvet).  ffi-e\)et- 

jeg  fatte.  fat. 

jeg  tog.  taget. 

jeg  ti-af.  tvuffet. 

\c^  ti-af.  tnitfet. 

jeg  tvaab.  traabt. 

jeg  tl>ang.  t\)uuget. 

jeg  i>anl)t.  tJuuDet. 

jeg  Di|U.  Di|t. 

jeg  \)veD.  t)vit>t. 

jeg  \)ar.  ^oevet. 

be  easily  acquired  by 


CHAPTER   IX. 

ADVERBS. 


^  146.  The  adverb  is  that  part  of  speech  which  expresses 
the  nearer  circumstances  with  which  an  action,  passion, 
quality,  or  even  the  circumstance  itself,  is  represented  to  be 


58  ADVERBS. 

connected  ;  e.  g.  teuue  |lti;gge  ^dxi  xit>n  fmuft,  this  ugly  fel- 
low rides  beautifully;  gvcbevif  efffc^  ^-ailigcu  af  fine  govoefs 
t>ve,  Frederick  is  highly  beloved  by  his  parents;  ^t}i(ip  tjdt 
XM^  \)CCVCt  fiittig,  Philip  has  been  industrious  to-day  ;  iottZ 
Cr  en  megct  fmuf  ^ige,  Lotte  is  a  very  beautiful  girl ;  M 

CI*  o\)cvmaa^e  \)e[  tmit  af  ttnm  3)reng,  this  boy  is  exceed- 
ingly well  thought  of. 

^  147.  The  adverbs  are,  according  to  their  significa- 
tion, divided  into  the  following  classes. 

I.  Adverbs  of  place,  which  signify  the  place  to  which 
the  quality  expressed  by  the  verb  belongs,  and  which  are 
of  four  kinds  :  — 

(a.)  Conveying  the  idea  of  the  place;  e.  g.  t)er,  there; 
()Ct*,  here;  i}\)Ot,  where;  l)\)Ori,  wherein;  ,iut)e,  within;  ut>e, 
without;  nct)c,  below;  ommc  (e.  g.  ijaw  cr  omme  ^o^  o^, 
he  is  over  by  us)  ;  ()jemme,  at  home  ;  (fee. 

{b.)  Conveying  the  idea  to  the  place  ;  e.  g.  f)it>,  hither  ; 
{jer^it),  hereto ;  i)\)OXtil,  whereto;  t^ijm,  thither,  thereto; 

in^,  in,  into;  ub,  out;  op,  up ;  om  (e.  g.  gaacoiu  til  ijain, 

go  round  to  him) ;  XU^,  down ;  ^jcm,  home  ;  &/C. 

(c.)  Conveying  the  idea  from  the  place;  e.  g.  tcvfra, 
therefrom ;  ^\)OVfva,  wherefrom ;  Ot)Cuft*a,  from  above ; 
^jcmmefra,  from  home  ;  &c. 

(d.)  Conveying  the  idea  through  the  place  ;  e.  g.  ut)at), 
outward  ;  l}n*U^a^,  out  of  this  plaxie  ;  ^el•ig;euuem,  through 
that  place ;  bl)OVig;enucm,  through  which  place  ;  &.c. 

II.  Adverbs  of  time,  which  signify  the  time  to  which 
the  quality  expressed  by  the  verb  belongs,  and  which  are 
either  (1.)  of  a  definite  time,  or  (2.)  of  an  indefinite  time. 

1.  Definite  adverbs  of  time  :  — 

(a.)  With  the  idea  of  present  time  ;  as,  nu,  now  ;  it)ag, 
to-day ;  iaav,  this  year  ;  nucm|lunl)Cr,  now-a-days  ;  &c. 

(6.)  With  the  idea  of  past  time ;  as,  xxi)^,  of  late  ;  tiU 
font,  formerly;  igaar,  yesterday;  ifjov,  last  year;  imOVgC^, 
this  morning;  far,  before;  &c. 


ADVERBS.  59 

(c.)  With  the  idea  of  future  time  ;  as,  iTvajl*,  presently  ; 
pt)cn,  afterwards ;  imorgCIl,  to-morrow ;  0\)evmOVgcn,  the 
day  after  to-morrow  ;  tjiVtfttV,  hereafter  ;  &c. 

2.  Indefinite  adverbs  of  time  :  naavfom^cf)?,  whenso- 
ever ;  unbevtiten,  now  and  then ;  |lunt)Om,  sometimes  ;  fiU 
^e,  late;  diXtU,  tit>Iigeu,  early;  aftib,  always;  a(M*ig,  never; 
tctit)^,  in  time  ;  Iccnge,  a  long  while  ;  &lc, 

III.  Adverbs  of  number,  which  express  the  quality  de- 
noted by  the'verb  as  being  more  often  or  more  seldom  in 
connection  with  the  subject,  are  either, —  (a.)  Definite; 
as,  ecugang,  once;  togange,  twice;  6lc.;  or,  (6.)  Indef- 
inite; as,  ofte,  tit>t,  often;  fjetteut,  seldom;  6lc. 

IV.  Adverbs  of  form,  which  signify  the  manner  in  which 
the  quality  expressed  by  the  verb  is  thought  to  be  united 
with  an  object ;  e.  g.  ^t)0v{e^e6,  how  ;  faafete^,  thus ;  tige? 
IcDe^,  likewise ;  fom,  ligcfottt  (e.  g.  tjan  b(ixn  f(g  a^  font 
((igcfom)  en  gal  50?anD,  he  appears  like  a  mad  man) ;  forg-- 
jel)C^,  in  vain  ;  i(^e,  not  well ;  \)d,  well  (e.  g.  M  n  \>d 
fagt,  it  is  well  said)  ;  iligcmaate,  in  like  manner;  cfter^aam 
ten,  by  degrees  ;  &c. 

V.  Adverbs  of  degree,  which  express  the  greater  or  less 
degree  in  which  the  quality  signified  by  a  verb  or  an  adjec- 
tive appears  ;  e.  g.  fontieget,  too  much  ;  tiffllfte,  fully  ;  me- 
get,  much;  uof,  enough;  noffotU,  sufficiently  ;  faa  (e.  g. 
t)an  ev  faa  got),  he  is  so  good) :  (;\jov  (e.  g.  ^bor  mccgtig 
tjm  CV  !  how  powerful  he  is !  )  ;  faavc,  exceedingly  ;  foevl)eIe^, 
particularly  ;  gauffe,  aftele^,  entirely  ;  tcmmcligeu,  tolera- 
bly ;  faat)it)t  (e.  g.  faai>it)t  ttraa  tjan  gaae,  ei  DiDere,  so  far 
he  must  go,  no  farther)  ;  no:)lett/  Omtveut,  about ;  afene,  ih 
fun,  only  ;  &c. 

VI.  Adverbs  of  avowing  and  denying,  which  express 
the  quality  signified  by  the  verb,  whether  they  are  connect- 
ed with  the  subject  or  not ;  e.  g.  ja  (e.  g.  ijdv  t>U  gjOVt  t>et 
(definite  question)?  ja,  have  you  done  it  ?  yes);  jo  (e.  g.  tu 
fom  ^0g  \>d  ingen   ©fa^C   til   (indefinite,  doubtful  ques- 


60  ADVERBS. 

tion)  ?  jo,  I  hope  no  accident  happened  to  you  ?  yes) ;  fan^e^ 
ligcn,  truly  ;  \)i(fcfi^Ctt,  certainly  ;  \>x\t,  certain  ;  uci,  no  : 
Hit,  not;  ei,  no;  iugenluut)e,  by  no  means;  &c. 

VII.  Adverbs  of  reason,  which  express  the  cause  why 
the  quality  denoted  by  the  verb  is  found  in  connection  with 
the  subject ;  e.  g.  tcrfor,  therefore ;  l)evot)CV,  thereat ; 
^\>OVO\)Cr,   whereat ;    t)evt)C^,   thereby  ;    ^\)OVt)Ct>,    whereby ; 

tcraf  (as,  tevaf  fommet  t)ct,  hence  it  comes) ;  tevmet), 
therewith;  ^\)ovmet>  (e.  g.  ^^ovme^  ^av  ;eg  fovtjent  Dct? 
wherefore  have  I  deserved  it  ?)  ;  l)a  (e.  g.  M  tO^e  ta  x\)}:m  i 
J5^Cint>cn,  then  they  took  the  axe  in  the  hand). 

VIII.  Adverbs  of  doubt  and  wishing,  which  express,  that 
the  quality  signified  by  the  verb  is  only  possible  or  desirous ; 
e.  g.  maaffce,  perhaps;  muligcn,  possibly  ;  caitffee,  may  be; 
ntcu  (e.  g.  mou  M  CV  ijam,  wonder  whether  it  is  he) ;  ^it>, 
would  that. 

IX.  Adverbs  of  order,  which  express  that  the  denoted 
quality  is  in  connection  with  the  subject  in  a  certain  rela- 
tion;  e.  g.  f&t\1,  first;  ^evnoell,  next;  fvewt>efcg,  further- 
more; t)iDCl*e,  farther;  i;^cnncve,  moreover;  &c. 

X.  Adverbs  of  explaining,  which  announce  the  commu- 
nication of  an  explanation  or  nearer  determination  of  one 
or  the  other  idea,  which  formerly  is  mentioned  without  such 
determination;   e.  g.  nemlig,  namely;  faafom,  whereas. 

XI.  Adverbs  of  combination,  which  express  that  the 
signified  quality  is  in  connection  with  more  than  one  sub- 
ject at  one  time,  or  that  more  than  one  quality  is  in  con- 
nection with  one  and  the  same  subject ;  e.  g.  tiffautmcu, 
together;  tifljobe,  jointly  ;  famtfigCU,  generally;  Ogfaa,  also, 
further ;  tillige,  together,  at  the  same  time  ;  &c. 

Observations  on  the  Adverbs. 

§  148.  Obs.  1.  For  the  rest,  adverbs  might  be  wholly 
formed  of  adjectives ;  e.  g.  [jiin  n  fmuf,  Og  tanl)fev  fttUlf t, 


ADVERBS.  61 

she  is  beautiful,  and  dances  beautifully ;  ijmx  Ct  m;bclig,  Og 
[)\\n  fl^ngCl*  Ul)^cIigt,  she  is  exquisite,  and  sings  exquisitely. 

^  149:  Obs.  2.  Adverbs  are  also  formed  of  adjectives 
in  ig,  by  adding  the  syllable  en ;  e.  g.  ijxnx  l)ant)fei*  mjttii^m, 
she  dances  charmingly ;  some  adjectives  in  ig  are,  never- 
theless, used  as  adverbs  unchanged  ;  e.  g.  ^cn  Ct)ig  gOt)e 
®ut),  the  eternally  good  God;  tm  gUt)l>ommc(ig  (i^j&mxt 
Sigtev,  the  heavenly  beautiful  poet. 

§  150.  Obs.  3.  The  comparatives  and  superlatives  of 
those  adverbs  which  are  formed  of  adjectives  are  like  those 
of  the  adjectives;  e.  g.  ©op^ie  tcguev  Utxt  tixt)  ^CUtC^ 
&jO(\Ut ;  men  @<aileven  bvoDevev  igjen  l)e)!o  m;t)etigere,  So- 
phia drawls  better  than  her  sister  ;  but  the  sister  again  em- 
broiders the  more  exquisitely. 

^  151.  Obs.  4.  The  adverbs  that  are  compared  irreg- 
ularly are  :  ifte,  t)0:vrc,  t)CCV|l,  bad,  worse,  worst ;  t)ef,  bette, 
Ut>\}f  well,  better,  best;  tit)t,  tieve,  tietl,  often,  oftener, 
oftenest.      ^&\:,  before,  fJOV]},  first,  are  defective  adverbs. 

^  152.  Obs.  5.  To  the  adverbs  belong  also  several 
small  words,  under  the  name  of  inseparable  particles,  which 
are  only  used  in  connection  with  other  words ;  these  are,  — 
1.  an,  which,  nevertheless,  in  some  cases  can  be  placed 
after  the  other  word  ;  as,  anmotet,  solicit,  rtntager  and 
tagcv  an,  accept ;  2.  be;  as,  bef^avev,  answer ;  3.  bi ;  as, 
Sifag,  a  secondary  cawse  ;  it  is,  nevertheless,  placed  alone 
in  at  llaae  een  bi;  4.  er;  as,  evfjent^e,  to  acknowledge ; 
5.  fov;  as,  fovfmaacr,  despise;  6.  mi^ ;  as,  tniff;cn^e,  to 
misjudge;  7.  fam ;  as, famtl)l'f er,  consent;  8.  n;  as,  Ull)ffc, 
misfortune  ;  9.  lint) ;  as,  unbflp,  to  escape  ;  &c. 


62  PREPOSITIONS. 

CHAPTER   X. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

§  153.  The  preposition  is  that  part  of  speech  which 
expresses  the  different  relations  in  which  two  or  more  things, 
brought  in  connection,  stand  to  each  other  ;  e.  g.  S5ogCU 
liggev  paa  ^otHt  ellci-  uut)eu  35ovt>et,  the  book  lies  on  the 
table  or  under  the  table.  The  prepositions  in  the  Danish 
language  are  the  following. 

I.  Prepositions  which  denote  a  relation  to  place  :  — 
{a.)   With  the   idea  of  the  place  :   a  or  aa  (see  ^  155, 

06s.  2);  bag  or  bagtJCl),  behind  ;  fclan^C  or  t6lan^t,  among; 
eftCV,  after;  fct*  or  fovait,  before;  fovbi,  past;  fov\)et),  in 
front ;  1)0^,  by,  with,  at,  in,  about ;  i  or  llt)i,  in ;  imcdem  or 
mcdem,  between  ;  iuteu  or  int)Cnfov,  within  ;  nel)cnfor,  be- 
low ;  MC^\t,  next ;  0\)CU  or  OtJCnfov,  above ;  Ot)Cr,  over ;  ])ixa, 
upon;  nten  or  ut)Cnfor,  without;  xnxHt,  under;  t)et),  by, 
at,  on,  about. 

(6.)  With  the  idea  to  the  place  :  at>,  towards,  to  ;  imo^, 
against,  towards ;  til,  to,  towards,  at,  about,  by,  in,  on,  for; 
tt:ot>^;  in  spite  of. 

(c.)  With  the  idea,  from  the  place  :  af,  of;  fva,  from; 
UMf,  out  of;  Ubeufra,  from  without. 

(d.)  With  the  idea  through  the  place  :   gjenucm  or  i^jm- 

nem,  through. 

(e.)  With  the  idea  about  the  place  :  OtU/  omfviug,  about, 
around. 

II.  Prepositions  which  express  a  relation  to  time  :  fJ9t, 
before  (that  is,  some  time  ago) ;  fi^CU/  by  and  by,  afterwards. 
Many  of  the  above-named  prepositions  of  place  are  also  used 
as  prepositions  of  time. 


PREPOSITIONS.  63 

III.  Prepositions  which  express  a  reason  :  fovmcbcfflt,  on 
account  of. 

IV.  Prepositions  which  express  an  accompaniment  or 
want  thereof:  met>,  with ;  famt,  and,  as  also;  foi*Ul)Cn, 
UDen,  without  (any  thing  or  any  body). 

Observations  on  Prepositions. 

§  154.  Obs.  1.  Prepositions  in  Danish  all  govern  the 
accusative.  When  fva,  ^0^,  til,  stand  in  the  genitive, —  as, 
fta  35a9even^,  from  the  baker's ;  ^0^  2(mtmant>en^,  by  the 
bailiff's;  tit  ©metCU^,  at  the  smith's,— the  expression  can 
be  regarded  as  elliptical,  and  is  generally  completed  with 
J^UU^/  house,  understood. 

^  155.  Obs,  2.  The  preposition  a  or  aa  happens  in 
these  sentences  :  ijM^  gaaer  a  t)ig  ?  what  is  the  matter  with 
you  ?  hlt>  a  ijdm  \  t).  e.  hlt>  paa  ^am,  call  him ;  io  a  (San- 
gen,  ^  e.  ^O  paa  (Sangen,  two  at  a  time,  li  is  wrongfully 
used  instead  of  til ;  as,  fem  a  fCjC  £D?ife,  t).  e.  fcitt  til  fe]C 
$DIife,  five  to  six  miles. 

^  156.  Obs.  3.  lib  is  used  both  of  time  and  of  place 
in  the  following  expressions :  tet  laffcr  at)  Tifttti,  evening 
is  coming;  op  ab  35;evget,  up  the  mountain  ;  ut  at)  (t).  e. 
igjeuitcm,  through)  J)4)reu,  out  of  the  door  ;  &c. 

§  157.  Obs.  4.  3g|euucm,  imcdem,  imob,  are  used 
without  connection,  but  gicuucm,  meflem,  mob,  with  con- 
nection ;  e.  g.  at  gjejtucmbfabe,  but  6lat)e  igjennem,  to 
thumb  over  (a  book) ;  mcflemfomtl,  interposition,  but  bet 
fom  noget  imeKem  t>cm,  something  came  between  them  ; 
jeg  mct)f(gcr,  but  jeg  ftget*  imot),  I  oppose. 

§  158.  Obs.  5.  When  a  preposition  stands  with  a  gen- 
itive that  does  not  name  a  person,  these  connected  words 
are  considered  as  adverbs,  and  are  often  written  as  one 
word  ;  e.  g.  ifaut>ag^,  last  Sunday,  itvlg,  to-day,  &c. 


64  CONJUNCTIONS. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

CONJUJNCTIONS. 

^  159.  That  part  of  speech  is  called  a  conjunction, 
which  denotes  a  connection  between  words  or  sentences 
which  are  related  to,  or  connected  with,  each  other,  and 
also  signifies  the  nature  of  this  relation  and  connection  ; 
e.  g.  3o()auue^  09  ^UCt  ^i^  llD  fammcu,  John  and  Peter 
went  out  together ;  I;an  fuute  ei  fcmme,  tlji  tjan  t)av  fi;3, 
he  could  not  conie,  for  he  was  sick. 

The  conjunctions  may  be  denoted  as  follows  :  — 

I.  Those  that  express  both  the  connection  between  words 
which  belong  to  the  same  sentences,  and  between  single 
sentences  mutually,  are, — 

{a.)  Copulatives,  properly  connecting,  that,  1.  express 
either  the  reference  of  several  subjects  to  the  same  predi- 
cate, or,  on  the  contrary,  the  connection  of  several  predi- 
cates with  the  same  subject;  e.  g.  3ot}anne^  Og  ^Ctev  gif 
UD,  John  and  Peter  went  out;  faat)cl  jcg  fottt  tu  cv  l)an^ 
33cU/  you  are  his  friend  as  well  as  I  am ;  ^ct  CI*  ^ce(0  gOt)t, 
^eet^  OUbt,  it  is  part  good,  part  evil  ;  or,  2.  that  express 
the  connection  of  several  sentences,  so  that  they  would  be 
thought  in  connection,  or  the  one  sentence  as  belonging 
to  the  other;  e.  g.  jcg  gif  bovt,  Og  mill  &mx  fufgte  me^ 
mig/  I  vvent  away,  and  my  son  went  with  me  ;  jcg  bat),  at 
i)M\  tt>ilt>e  fJOl^Z  UlCb  mig,  I  prayed  that  he  would  follow  me; 
jcg  S)i[  t)i^c,  cm  ^aii  fommci*  til  mig,  I  wish  to  know. if  he 
is  coming  to  me. 

(b.)  Disjunctives,  separating,  which  express,  that  either 
one  only  of  several  subjects  should  be  united  with,  the  predi- 
cate, or,  on  the  contrary,  of  several  predicates,  that  one  only 
should   be   united  with  the  subject,  or  that  no  connection 


CONJUNCTIONS.  ^ 

of  the  subjects  and  predicates  takes  place,  or  that  they 
denote  as  uncertain  which  of  the  several  subjects  and 
predicates  should  be  united  ;  e.  g.  axUn  cr  50?ant>cn  cllcr 
^oneil  ()|emme,  either  the  man  or  the  wife  is  at  home  ; 
tjan  cr  cnten  ful^  cKer  gaf,  he  is  either  drunk  or  mad  ; 
^^evfcn  9}Tanl)eu  cdei*  Sfonen  ci*  ^jemme,  neither  is  the 
man  nor  the  wife  at  home ;  [jixn  er  ^\)ei*ten  fulD  cHer  gal, 
he  is  neither  drunk  nor  mad  ;  cuteu  ei*  5Dlaut)en  &^tlf 
Cfler  5f  onen  er  gJCVVig,  either  is  the  man  wasting,  or  the  wife 
avaricious ;  ()t)cvfen  CI*  3}Iaut)cn  &\>^d,  eller  Soxmx  gjetang, 
neither  is  the  man  wasting  nor  the  woman  avaricious. 

II.  Those  that  express  only  the  connection  between  single 
sentences  mutually  are  the  following:  — 

(a.)  Concessives,  acknowledging,  which  express,  that  a 
predicate  can  be  thought  connected  with  a  subject  under 
circumstances  which  otherwise  make  this  connection  im- 
probable;  e.  g.  ffj^ubt  i}(xn  cv  ^oDeMng,  fultet  iiaxi  ^og, 
although  he  is  immensely  rich,  still  he  starves ;  iI}t)OVt)Cl 
ijmx  n  H  55aru,  gv(Kt»  Ijxxxx  ^og  ei,  ^a  ^un  fafbt,  although  she 
is  a  child,  still  she  wept  not  when  she  fell;  t)Cl  {bene,  adv.) 
fj9t>  er  M  {quidem,  conj.)  eu  '^r-o^t^ ;  men  bel)re  l)ct  op^ 
tragen,  well  born  is  indeed  a  consolation  ;  but  better  well 
brought  up. 

{b.)  Adversatives,  contradictory,  which  express,  that  ei- 
ther the  same  subject  or  several  subjects  should  be  consid- 
ered as  with  predicates  contradicting  each  other  or  mutually 
different ;  e.  g.  t^an  er  rig,  men  ^um,  he  is  rich,  but  ignorant  ; 
Clara  er  \>d  fmu^,  t)og  er  l?en&e^  &&\}n*  fmutfere,  Clara  is 
indeed  handsome,  still  her  sister  is  handsomer ;  ^au  cr 
bkxxxx  at)\)aret,  a({igc\?ef  \)e^bli\)er  tjm  at  Mxt  uartig,  he 
has  been  cautioned,  nevertheless  he  continues  to  be  un- 
civil. 

(c. )    Conditionals,  which  express   the  connection  of  a 
predicate  with  a  subject,  under  condition  of  another  predi- 
cate's connection  with  the  same  or  another  subject ;  e.  g. 
6* 


66  CONJUNCTIONS. 

t>crfom  bu  6c^agcr,  faa  fan  t)ii  nu  gaae  6ovt,  if  you  please, 
then  you  can  now  go  away  ;  \)S>i&  ^t  \)i[,  huiUC  X>i  nil  gaac 
til  33ovt>^,  if  agreeable  to  you,  we  might  now  sit  down  to 
dinner. 

(d.)  Conclusives,  which  express  the  connection  of  a 
predicate  with  a  subject,  as  a  consequence  of  another 
predicate's  connection  with  the  same  or  another  subject ; 
e.  g.  et  9}tcnnefte  n  et  Dm ;  3ctt^  cr  et  SOTcnncffe ;  attfaa 
Ct*  3cu^  Ct  ^91*/  a  man  is  an  animal  ;  Jens  is  a  man  ;  con- 
sequently Jens  is  an  animal ;  t)m  ct  cioD  ;  l)ei*fov  clffc  \)i 
ifdin,  he  is  kind ;  therefore  we  love  him. 

(e.)  Causals,  which,  by  the  connection  of  a  predicate 
with  its  subject,  express  the  reason  why  another  predicate 
shall  be  thought  connected  with  the  same  or  another  sub- 
ject ;  e.  g.  M  ijiXM  er  t)oi*  J^C'fbonb,  faa  b&v  \>i  ti^te  l}am,  as 
he  is  our  master,  we  ought  to  obey  him ;  fovDi  i}(Xn  n  30^, 
er  ^au  elffet,  because  he  is  kind,  he  is  loved. 

(f.)  Consecutives,  which  express  the  connection  of  a 
predicate  with  its  subject,  with  regard  to  the  time  at  which 
another  predicate  is  represented  to  be  connected  with  the 
same  or  another  subject ;  e.  g.  Da  IjdM  gif  bovt,  fa(bt  t)an, 
when  he  went  away,  he  fell  ;  ^au  fottl  fav|t,  cftcvat  Some- 
tini  t)av  bcgi}ut>t,  og  gi^  bovt,  fm*cnb  t)eu  ^av  tikntc,  he 
came  first,  after  the  comedy  had  commenced,  and  went 
away  before  it  ended. 

(g.)  Proportionals,  which  express  the  relation  of  the 
connection  of  different  predicates  with  the  same  or  different 
subjects;  e.  g.  ;o  vigere  Saju^  bfct),  jo  gjervigcre  bU\>  t)a«, 
the  richer  Caius  became,  the  more  miserly  he  became  ;  jo 
mere  tt  forfulgtc  9tapo(eon,  H\lo  mccgtigcve  hU\)  tjcm,  the 
more  they  pursued  Napoleon,  the  more  mighty  he  became. 

Observations, 

^  160.  The  conjunctions  are  properly  adverbs,  which, 
when  they  are  used  to  connect  words  or  sentences,  receive 


INTERJECTIONS.  67 

this  name,  but,  when  they  are  not  used  as  such,  again  re- 
turn among  the  adverbs.  Therefore  one  and  the  same 
word  in  different  significations  can  be  used  either  as  an  ad- 
verb, a  conjunction,  or  a  preposition  ;  e.  g.  for ;  as,  {)au  be^el• 
fov  (prep.)  fin  25vot>er,  men  i)m  feev  ft^  nof  for  (adv.),*  he 
prays  for  his  brother,  but  he  will  look  out  for  himself;  like- 
wise om;  as,  jeg  bel)cu  cm  (prep.)  govlatclfe,  I  beg  for 
pardon  ;  ijan  jlocj  flu  Svol)CV  om  (adv.),  he  threw  his  broth- 
er down  ;  )eg  \)U^e  uof  \>iu,  cm  (conj.)  ijan  ftufte  ^ccve 
^ev,  I  would  like  to  know  if  he  should  be  here ;  also  far ; 
as,  ;cg  faae  ^ am  far  (adv.),  I  saw  him  a  while  ago;  i)an 
f ommcr  S>X\\  far  (prep. )  ^unlf  he  certainly  will  come  before 
Christmas ;  l)au  \)ar  ^er  far  (the  same  as  farcuD,  conj.)  t)i 
faae  O^  for,  he  was  here  before  we  knew  it. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

§  161.  The  interjections  are  not  really  words,  but  mere 
sounds,  which  express  feeling,  apprehension,  and  are  brought 
under  the  following  classes. 

I.  Interjections  of  wonder  :  0}  !  heigh  !  ^idcmCCnt) !  O 
strange  1  naa !  really  ! 

II.  Interjections  of  exclamation  :  0  !  O  !  a^  !  ah  ! 

III.  Interjections  of  aversion  :  t)CCf  !  away  !  f p  !  fie  ! 
a!  fob! 

IV.  Interjections  of  grief :  ei !  O  !  o  t)CC !  alas!  a^a!  ah! 

V.  Interjection  of  bodily  pain  :  au  ! 


*  When  the  adverb  for  ia  connected  with  the  verb,  it  takes  the  addition 
of  the  vov/el  e ;  as,  at  ta^i  ftg  noget  for,  but  at  foretage  ftg  no^et,  to  occupy 
one's  self. 


68  NUlVlERALS. 

VI.  Interjections  of  joy:  (?ci !  f)eifa !  f)Opfa !  of;!  ho! 
hop  !  O ! 

VIL  Interjections  of  approbation  :  i^  !  well !  naa !  brave- 
ly !  n<x\  O  brave ! 

VIII.  Interjection  of  laughter:   ^a^alja !  ha!  ha!   ha! 

IX.  Interjection  of  despair  :  ija  !  ha  ! 

X.  Interjections  of  a  call  of  the  attention:  ijMdl  ho 
there  !  ^ci !  t}Cil>a  !  hem !  soho  ! 

XI.  Interjections  of  requesting  silencfe  :  t\)^  I  hush  ! 
^\)il^!  hist! 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

NUMERALS. 

§  162.  The  numerals  denote  either  the  quantity  or  or- 
der  of  the  unity,  and  are  therefore  divided  into  cardinals 
and  ordinals. 

The  Cardinals  are : 

Sen  (eet),  one.  ©e]l*ten,  sixteen. 

^0  (t\)ent>c),  two.  ©r)tten,  seventeen. 

1U  (tvent>e),  three.  2CtCcn,  eighteen. 

give,  four.  ,   Stittcn,  nineteen. 

gem,  five.  ^t}t)e,  twenty. 

@e|C,  six.  eenogt^\)e,  twenty-one. 

@^\),  seven.  'ilvct)it)e,  thirty. 

Om,  eight.  8^v9en)\)e,  forty. 

g^i,  nine.  ^iXl\>tu\i\\Ht\)S>t,  fifty, 

c^^^  ten.  ^vefint>^tl)t)e,  sixty. 

eiUc,  eleven.  J5cil\)f)evt)ftnD^t^t)e,  seventy. 

3:ob,  twelve.  giivftut>^n;t)e,  eighty. 

5:vettCU,  thirteen.  ^a(t)femftu^^n)\)e,  ninety. 

gjOVteu,  fourteen.  ^UUtvet)?,  a  hundred. 

gemtCU,  fifteen.  ^3:ufcnt>C,  a  thousand. 


DITISION    OF    TIME. 


The  Ordinals  are ; 


gm'tle,  first. 
2(nt>cn,  second. 
2:veDie,  third. 
g;ei*l)e,  fourth, 
gcmte,  fifth. 

@)nu,  sixth. 
©i}\)cnt)e,  seventh. 
OtUwU,  eighth. 
3tiellt>e,  ninth. 
^ieut)C,  tenth. 
^IU\)U,  eleventh. 
'io(\)te,  twelfth. 
^IveCtenDe,  thirteenth, 
gjovtcute,  fourteenth. 
gcmtCUte,  fifteenth. 
©C]CtCUt)er  sixteenth. 


©^ttenbe,  seventeenth. 

litUwU,  eighteenth. 

^tittcu^C,  nineteenth. 

3:l)l)Cn^e,  twentieth. 

®enogti)t)eube,  twenty-first. 

^reMDte,  thirtieth. 

§i;vgCtl)t)eul)C,  fortieth, 

J5a(^trefiul>^t^\)eut)e,  fiftieth. 

5:vefiut^ti;i^cnl)e,  sixtieth. 

J5^^i^fifVt)fiul)^t9t)ent)e,  seven- 
tieth. 

giivfluD^t^t)Ctt^e,  eightieth. 

J5aIt)femf(nt>^tt)t)euDe,  nine- 
tieth. 

J5unt)tCM)C,  hundredth. 

?:ufcul)e,  thousandth. 


§  163.  From  the  ordinals  are  formed  two  kinds  of  car- 
dinals, by  placing  before  them  ljat\)  and  felt) ;  as,  ()alt)femte, 
four  and  a  half;  fcf^f9\)ett^e,  myself  witji  six  more  men. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

DIVISION  OF  TIME. 


^ct  2(avtufcu&e,  a  thousand    Set  2(av^unt)vcl)e,  a  century, 
years.  Sct  'Zfav,  a  year. 


govaav,  or  ^aav,  spring, 
©ommer,  summer. 


©ftcvaar,  or  ^q^^  autumn. 
25iuter,  winter. 


70                                             DIVISION    OF 

TIME. 

Santtavi, 

January. 

gcbniavi,  or  (SUgemaauet), 

February. 

Tlat^,  or  S8aavmaanel>, 

March. 

2Cpi*iI,  or  (Svccfmaanet), 

April. 

COtai,  or  35Iom|lcvmaanet), 

May. 

^mxi,  or  ®ommennaane^/ 

June.' 

^nli,  or  ^&(m(imtt>f 

July. 

!KugutI,  or  J^^lUmaancl), 

August. 

©eptembev, 

September. 

October,  or  J^^gtcmaauct), 

October. 

StotJCmbcr,  or  SBiutCVmaanet),               November. 

Seccmbcv,  or  3u[ema^uc&, 

December. 

©^nt)ag,         Sunday. 

3:ov^l)ag,        Thursday. 

SDtant)ag,        Monday. 

gvetag,           Friday. 

3:iv^t)ag,         Tuesday. 

i&\>tX^(X^,        Saturday. 

i)n^t)ag,          Wednesday. 

Slat,  night. 

govmi^^ag,  forenoon. 

SDTit>nat,  midnight. 

SDTtt)t)ag,  noon. 

$OtorgCn,  morning. 

Sftn•mi^t)ag,  afternoon. 

©ofcu^  opgang,  sunrise. 

@oIen^  uc^gaug,  sunset. 

Sag,  day. 

2(ften,  evening. 

3:imc,  hour. 


SDtinut,  minute. 


©efuuD,  second. 


SWEDISH   GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER   I. 

ALPHABET. 


§  1.     The  Swedish  language  is  expressed  by  means  of 
twenty-eight  letters. 

Letters. 

A,  a, .  Ah. 

B,b, Bay. 

C,  c, Say. 

D,  d, Day. 

E,  e, Eh. 

F,  f,        Eff. 

.  G,  g, Ghay. 

H,  h, Hoh. 

I,i, .     .     .  Ee. 

J,j,  Yod. 

K,  k, Koh. 

L,l,  Ell. 

M,  m, Emm, 

N,  n, Enn. 

0,0, O. 

P,P,  Pay. 

Q,  q, Koo. 

R,r,  Err. 

S,  s, Ess. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

T,t,        .........  Tay. 

U,  u, Go. 

V,  V,  " .  •  Vay. 

X,  X,  .  • Ex. 

Y,  y, Ipsilon, 

Z,  z, .  Ssetah. 

A,  a, .  Au. 

A,  a,  .     .     .     ,     .     .     .     .     .  Ay. 

O,  6, .  O. 

§  2.     The  compound  letters  are  like  those  of  the  Danish. 


CHAPTER  II. 

PRONUNCIATION. 
§  3.     Sounds  of  Simple  Vowels. 

a.  Sounded  nearly  as  a  in  the.  English.word  ^ar ;  e.  g. 
Almdgtigj  almighty  ;  jag,  I. 

e.  Nearly  like  a  in  the  English  xvord  fate;  e.  g.  evig,  ever; 
Ekndighet^  misery.  .     '. 

i.      Like  the  English  c  in  wz^e;.  e..g.  Tidf  time;  ickc,  not. 

0,  Like  th^  English  o  \vir^mi%t  e,.g,  Mor^  nipther  ;  Ord, 
word.  .  ,  ■    ^  ^ 

w.     Like  the  English  u.  in  ruh  ; .  e.  .g.  Qud,  God  ;  ut^  out. 

y.  As  the  French  u  in  du  ;  e.  g,  ^yn,  sight ;  Ynnest,  fa- 
vor. •  y..     .  V- 

tt.     Nearly  as  the  Eng-lish  q  in  hng";  e.  g.  ^Ir,  year  ;  lang, 

long. 
a.     As  the  English  a  in  name;,  e.  g.   drhar,  honorable; 

vdrdig,  worthy. .... 
D.     As  the  French  eu  in. feu;  e.  g.  Brod]  bread  ;   Ore,  ear. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


Observations, 


§  4.  Obs.  1.  The  Swedish  vowels  are,  hard,  a,  o,  ?/,  a  ; 
and  soft,  e,  i,  y,  «,  o. 

^  5.  Obs,  2.  Every  vowel  must  be  distinctly  pro- 
nounced. 

^  6.  Obs,  3.  All  the  vowels  are  sometimes  long  and 
sometimes  short,  that* is,  the  same  sound  being  more  or  less 
protracted.  E.  g.  a  is  long  in  Gafve,  gift ;  and  short  in 
Landj  land.  The  distinction,  however,  has  reference  only 
to  accented  syllables. 

^  7.  Obs.  4.  When  two  vowels  occur  together,  they 
must  both  be  sounded;  ^s,  beediga,  to  swear  to;  Fiende^ 
enemy. 

§  8.     Sounds  of  the  Simple  Consonants. 

b.  Sounded  as  in    the    English  word   bay ;  e.  g.   Brody 

bread ;  Nabo,  neighbour. 

c.  Like  A:,  unless  it  stands  before  e,  i,  y,  a,  o,  when  it  is 

sounded  as  s;  e.  g.  Castanie,  chestnut,  pronounce 
Ka^tanie  ;   Citron^  lemon,  pronounce  Sitron, 

d.  As  in  the  English  word  do ;  e.  g.  Dansk,  Danish  ;  ex- 

cept at  the  end  of  a  word,  where  it  is  sounded 
somewhat  hard,  as  dt ;  e.  g.  hatad^  hated. 

f.  As  in  the  English  word  off,  when  it  is  not  at  the  end  of 

a  word,  or  the  last  letter  in  a  syllable,  in  which 
cases  it  is  differently  sounded  (see  ^  9,  Obs.  1). 
E.  g.  in  the  first  case,  where  it  has  its  original  sound, 
fragay  to  ask  ;  ofta,  often. 

g.  As  the  English  g  in  go^  except  at  the  end  of  a  syllable 

when    preceded  by  another  consonant   (see  §   10, 
Obs.  2).    E.  g.   in  the  first  case,   where   it  has  its 
original  sound,  Gafse,  gift ;  nagon,  any. 
h.     As  the  English  h  in  he;  e.  g.  Hus,  house;   Godhet, 
7 


4  PRONUNCIATION, 

kindness;  except  when  it  stands  before  J  and  v  (see 

§11,  Obs.  3). 
j.      Sounded  a  little  harder  than  the  vowel  i ;  e.  g.  jag^  I ; 

g,  not. 
k.     As  in  English,  but  is  distinctly  sounded  before  n;  e.  g. 

K?id,  knee  ;  knytta,  to  tie. 
/.      As  in  English;  e.  g.  Lif,  life;  hlott^  only. 
m.    As  in  English;   e.  g.  Menska,  man  ;  Xawi,  comb, 
w.     As  in  English;  e.  g.  w«r,  when  ;  kan,  can. 
jj.     As  in  English  ;  e.  g.  Landskap,  landscape;  profva,  to 

prove. 
g'.     Sounded  as  k]  e.g.    Qya/,  agony;    Qvimia,  woman. 

This  letter  is  always  followed  by  the  letter  v, 
r.      Nearly  as  r  in  the  English  words  warm^  her ;  e.  g.  Vd- 

c?er,  weather ;  jRe^erm^,  government. 
5.      As  the  English  5  in  sound;  e.  g.  Samtalj  conversation  ; 

susa,  to  purl. 
t.      As  in   English  ;    e.  g.    Tapper het,    bravery ;    titta^    to 

peep. 
V,     As  in  English  ;    e.  g.  Vagn,  wagon  ;  farvdl,  farewell. 
X.     As  the  English  x  mjix;  e.  g.  Fixstjerna^  fixed  star. 

§  ^'  ^^^'  ^*  When  the  letter /stands  at  the  end  of  a 
word,  it  is  always  sounded  like  v;  e.  g.  gif^  give,  bref,  letter, 
pronounce  giv,  brev.  When  it  is  followed  by  the  letter  v  it 
loses  its  sound  entirely  ;  e.  g.  behofva,  to  need,  lefva,  to 
live,  pronounce  behova,  leva. 

§  10.  Obs.  2.  Gj  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  when  preceded 
by  another  consonant  (except  w),  is  generally  sounded  asj ; 
e.  g.  TaJg,  tallow,  Vargskin,  wolfskin,  pronounce  talj, 
varjskin. 

§  11.  Obs.  3.  When  the  letter  h  stands  before j  and  v, 
it  loses  its  aspiration  ;  e.  g.  Hjelpy  help,  hvilken,  which, 
pronouncej^j//?,  vilken. 


PKONUNCIATION.  O 

§  12.  Obs.  4.  In  words  derived  from  the  Latin,  when 
t  is  followed  by  a  vowel,  it  is  generally  sounded  like  5;  e.  g. 
PortioUy  portion,  sound  porsion, 

§  13.  Obs,  5.  Consonants  must  not  be  pronounced  as 
double  unless  written  so ;  e.  g.  Hat^  hate,  vis,  wise,  pro- 
nounce hawty  vees ;  but  when  doubled,  they  should  always 
be  sounded  so ;  e.  g.  Hatt^  hat,  viss^  certain.* 

§  14.     Sounds  of  Combined  Consonants. 

ch  occurs  only  in  foreign  words  and  proper  names,  and 
is  pronounced  before  the  hard  vowels  (and  at  the 
end  of  words)  as  A:,  before  the  soft  as  tj ;  e.  g.  Cha- 
ron,  China,  pronounce  karon,  tjina  (cawron,  chee- 
nah). 

ch.  Sounded  as  ck  in  English  ;  e.  g.  Ackt,  purpose;  icke^ 
not. 

ff.  When  ^occurs,  each  letter  is  distinctly  sounded  ;  e.  g. 
Roffel,  rifle  ;  Puffert,  pistol ;  &/C. 

tz  does  not  occur  in  the  Swedish  language;  if  it  be  found, 
it  is  in  words  taken  from  other  languages,  and  is 
then  sounded  as  ts  ;  the  same  may  be  said  of  sz. 

Observations, 

§  15.  Obs,  1.  In  all  cases  not  noticed  above,  when 
two  or  more  consonants  come  together,  each  is  distinctly 
sounded. 

*  Herefrom  must  be  excepted  ; —  (a.)  Such  consonants  as  have  a  double 
sound  in  themselves,  as  j,  x,  and  for  the  most  part  m;  e.  g.  ej,  not,  vox, 
wax,  kom,  come,  pronounce  komm.  [b.)  When  two  consonants  end  a  sylla- 
ble, the  former  commonly  sounds  double  j  e.  g.  stark,  strong,  verk,  work, 
pronounce  starrk,  verrk.  But  here  it  requires  some  knowledge  to  tell 
which  or  how  many  letters  originally  belong  to  a  syllable  •je.g.n  in  sanka,  to 
sink,  is  not  doubled,  because  we  spell  sdn-ka ;  but  in  sdnkning,  sinking,  it 
is,  because  n  and  k  here  belong  to  the  same  syllable,  as  sSnk-ning.  (c.)  The 
last  consonant  in  a  short  syllable,  as  n  and  d  in  gifven,  fiatad,  given,  hated. 
{d.)  The  letter  n,  when  the  last  in  a  short  syllable,  is  doubled,  as  in  han, 
he,  hon,  she,  din^  thy,  Man,  man  5  &c. 


6  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

§  16.  Obs.  2.  Th  has  lost  its  original  sound  in  the 
Swedish  language  ;  when  it  occurs,  it  is  sounded  as  t  alone. 

Accent. 

§  17.  In  regard  to  the  stress  laid  on  a  particular  sylla- 
ble in  a  word,  the  following  general  rules  should  be  attended 
to.  Monosyllabic  words,  ending  with  a  double  consonant, 
or  with  a  consonant  that  has  a  double  sound,  or  with  two 
consonants,  of  which  the  former  sounds  double  (see  note 
(6.),  p.  5),  are  pronounced  short;  e.  g.  Skinrij  skin  ;  lam, 
lame  ;  Markj  field ;  &c.  The  others,  as  well  as  those  end- 
ing with  a  vowel,  long ;  e.  g.  Ek,  oak  ;  tog^  took ;  ga,  go ;  se, 
see ;  &c.  Here  it  must  be  observed,  that,  to  monosyllabics 
in  n  must,  in  order  to  have  the  long  sound,  be  added  the 
article  en^  neut.  et,  and  also  the  numeral  en,  one,  which 
last,  for  the  sake  of  distinction,  ends  in  the  neuter  gender 
with  tt  {ett). 

All  that  can  be  said  farther  is,  that  the  accent  falls  com- 
monly upon  the  most  important  syllable,  or  that  part  of  the 
word  which  is  the  invariable  root ;  but  this  is  best  acquired 
by  hearing  a  Swede  pronounce. 


CHAPTER  III. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Letters. 


§  18.  Obs.  1.  Formerly  the  Swedish  text  was  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  present  Danish  ;  but  now  all  Swedish 
books  are  printed  in  the  Latin  characters  (those  which  are 
employed  in  the  English).  The  Swedish  current  hand  is 
the  same  as  the  English. 


ARTICLE.  7 

§  19.  Obs.  2.  The  capital  letters  are  used  in  all  cases  in 
which  they  are  used  in  English,  excepting  that  the  pronoun 
of  the  first  person,  jag^  is  usually  written  without  a  capital, 
if  not  commencing  a  sentence.  Further,  in  Swedish,  all 
nouns,  and  all  words  used  as  nouns,  begin  with  a  capital 
letter,  as  also  all  pronouns  denoting  a  person  addressed. 
E.  g.  Manden,  the  man ;  Spisan,  the  cat ;  Du,  thou. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ARTICLE. 


§  20.  There  are  two  articles  in  Swedish,  viz.  the  defi- 
nite, and  the  indefinite. 

§  21.  The  indefinite  is  en,  a  or  an,  for  the  masculine  and 
feminine  genders,  and  et,  a,  for  the  neuter ;  e.  g.  en  Ko^ 
nungy  a  king ;  en  Drottning,  a  queen ;  et  Ting,  a  court 
held  in  the  country. 

§  22.  The  definite  state  is  also  expressed  by  en  and  et; 
but  in  this  case  the  article  is  added  to  the  noun  ;  e.  g.  Ko- 
nungenj  the  king;  Drottningen,  the  queen;  Tinget,  the 
court. 

Peculiarities  of  the  Articles. 

§  23.  I.  If  the  noun  ends  with  a  vowel,  then  only  n  or 
t  is  added  to  make  it  definite  ;  e.  g.  Hustru,  wife  ;  Arbete, 
work  ;  definite,  Hustrun,  Arbetet,  not  Hustruen,  Arbeteet.* 

§  24.  II.  Such  nouns  as  end  with  an  and  en,  and  have 
no  plural,  do  not  admit  the  addition  of  the  definite  article  ; 
e.  g.  Fruktan,  fear  ;  Bar  gen,  security  ;  &c. 

*  From  this  rule  must  be  excepted  words  of  the  third  declension  ending 
with  i,  and  nouns  of  that  declension  adopted  from  foreign  languages  3  as 
also  monosyllabic  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  j  e.  g.  Knil,  knee  5  jBz, 
bee  3  definite,  KnClet,  Biet. 

7* 


8  ARTICLE. 

§  25.  The  e  of  the  definite  article  is  also  generally  left 
out,  when  the  word  ends  with  el  or  cr,  and  is  not  monosyl- 
labic ;  e.  g.  Mantel,  mantle ;  Hunger^  hunger ;  definite, 
Manteln,  Hungern.^ 

§  26.  III.  The  article  en,  neut.  et,  has  an  obsolete 
plural,  ene  or  ena ;  as,  sma  ena,  little  ones  ;  and  although  it 
is  no  longer  used  by  itself  in  writing,  it  is  constantly  added 
to  plural  nouns  to  make  them  definite,  when,  however,  only 
the  termination  ne,  or  na,  is  retained  ;  e.  g.  Konungarney 
not  Konungarene,  the  kings ;  Bonorna^  not  Bonorena,  the 
beans.t 

§  27.  IV.  The  adjectives  have  all  a  definite  termina- 
tion, namely,  e  or  «,  added  to  the  positive  degree,  as  glade 
or  glada ;  and  an  e  (the  comparative  degree  has  e  before) 
to  the  superlative,  as  gladaste^  gen.  gladastes  ;  thus  the 
positive  singular  in  the  definite  state  is  the  same  as  the 
positive  plural,  which  the  context  must  distinguish,  as  also 
whether  the  adjective  stands  in  the  singular  or  plural,  which, 
when  definite,  are  always  alike.  For  instance,  store  Konung, 
great  king ;  store  Konungar,  great  kings ;  store  Konungar 
finnas,  great  kings  are  found.  Here  store  is  used  three 
different  ways;  the  first  is  definite  singular,  the  second,  defi- 
nite plural,  and  the  third  is  a  simple  plural. 

§  28.  V.  Of  the  pronouns,  none  partakes  so  much  of 
the  nature  of  an  article  as  den,  neut.  det ;  for,  besides  always 
making  the  following  adjective  definite,  it  also,  when  used 
as  a  pronoun  (signifying  that  or  that  very)  places  the  sub- 
stantive f  in  the  definite  state ;  e.  g.  jag  har  den  Boken,  I 

*  Except  those  of  the  fifth  declension,  which  retain  the  e  of  the  article, 
both  in  singular  and  plural,  but  throw  away  the  e  of  their  own  termination; 
e.  g.  Hagel,  hail  5  definite,  Haglet,  not  Hagelt  or  Hagelet. 

t  Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  (except  those  ending  with  are)  are  here 
an  exception  ;  as  they  leave  out  the  e  or  a  final  of  the  plural  article,  retain- 
ing only  en  to  make  them  definite  in  the  plural  3  e.  g.  Ha^el,  hail,  Ben, 
bone  ;  plural  definite,  Haglen,  Benen,  not  Hagelena,  Benna. 

X  Except  proper  names,  and  sometimes  words  denoting  the  affections  of 
the  mind  (when  used  emphatically) ;  e.  g.  Hat,  hate,  Karleky  love,  &c. 


NOUN.  9 

have  that  book.  But  it  is  often  used  as  a  mere  demonstra- 
tive particle,  when  it  leaves  the  substantive  in  the  indefinite 
state  ;  e.  g.  den  Skilnad  som  dr,  the  difference  which  is; 
and  it  then  answers  to  the  in  the  English. 

It  must  also  be  observed  here,  that  deniie,  this,  when  used 
more  demonstratively  (signifying  the  same  as  denhdr,  this 
very),  always  requires  the  following  substantive  to  be  defi- 
nite ;  thus,  denna  Boken^  means,  this  (very)  book  ;  denna 
Bok,  simply,  this  book. 


CHAPTER  V. 

NOUN. 
General  Statement. 

§29.  Nouns  in  Swedish  are  of  the  masculine,  femi- 
nine,  or  neuter  gender.  There  are  two  numbers,  singu- 
lar and  plural ;  and  six  cases,  viz.  nominative,  genitive, 
dative,  accusative,  vocative,  and  ablative. 

Gender  of  Swedish  Nouns. 

§  30.  The  different  genders  in  Swedish  have  no  fixed 
characteristics.  They  seem,  however,  as  if  the  declension 
nearest  decided  them  ;  thus,  all  nouns  of  the  first  are  femi- 
nine ;  all  of  the  fourth  and  fifth,  neuter.  Whether  nouns  of 
the  second  and  third  declension,  be  masculine  or  feminine  is 
not  easily  ascertained ;  but  as  the  same  article  (en)  is  ap- 
plied to  both,  we  might  admit  of  a  common  gender  by  the 
introduction  of  den  (that  or  it)  for  han  and  ho?i  (he  and 
she). 


10  NOUN. 

Declension  of  Swedish  Nouns. 

§  31.  The  variation  of  nouns  in  Swedish  may  be  best 
classified  under  five  declensions,  which  are  distinguished 
by  their  terminations  in  the  plural. 

§  32.  The  cases  are  expressed  by  the  context  or  by  par- 
ticles. One  only  is  inflected,  viz.  the  genitive,  which  is 
formed  by  adding  an  s  to  the  nominative ;  as,  Ringj  gen. 
Rings.  The  particles  thus  used  are  af,  of;  at,  to ;  fran, 
from. 

JFirst  Declension^  Plural  in  or. 

§  33.  Nouns  of  this  declension  end  with  a  in  the  singu- 
lar, which  is  left  out  in  the  plural,  and  are  all  feminine. 

Ex. :  Penna,  pen. 

Singular.  Plural, 

N.  Penna.  N.  Pennor, 

G.  Pennas.  G.  Pennors. 

D.  A.      >  p  D.  A. 

V.  &,  A.  C  ^^^^^'  V.  &  A. 


Penna,  tr'  ^*  \    [  Pennor, 


Second  Declension,  Plural  in  ar. 

§  34.  To  nouns  of  this  declension  belong  those  of  dif- 
ferent terminations  in  the  singular,  and  are  either  mascu- 
line or  feminine.      (See  §  38,   Obs,  1.) 

Ex.  of  Masc.  :  Konung,  king. 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  Konung,  N.  Konungar. 

G.  Konungs,  G.  Konungars, 

v!  &  A.  }  ^^^^^S'  v!  &  A.  }  ^o^^^S^^^' 

Ex.  of  Fem.  :  Sjdl,  soul. 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  SjdL  N.  Sjdlar. 

G.  Sjdls.  G.  Sjdlars, 


D.  A.      )  o-..,    .  D.  A. 

V.&  A. 


I  ^aZ.   •  y]  ^  ^   I  Sjdlar 


NOUN.  11 

Third  Declension,  Plural  in  er. 

§  35.  Nouns  of  this  declension  are  also  variously  termi- 
nated in  the  singular,  and  are  masculine  or  feminine.  (See 
§43,   06s.  6.) 

Ex.  of  Masc.  :  Planet,  planet. 


Singular. 
N.               Planet. 

Plural. 
N.                Planeter, 

G.               Planets, 

G.                Planeters. 

^■^^]pianet. 

?:&A.}^^«"^'^'-- 

Ex.  of  Fern. : 

:  Mark. 

,  land,  ground. 

Singular. 

N.                Marie. 

Plural. 

N.               Marker, 

G.               Marks. 

G.                Markers, 

?:&A.J^-^- 

y'.tA.]^'"''^'- 

Fourth  Declension, 

§  36.  Nouns  of  this  declension  are  all  neuter,  and  ter- 
minate in  the  singular  with  a  vowel,  to  which  an  n  is  added 
in  the  plural.     (See  §  44,   Obs.  7.) 

Ex. :  Hjerta,  heart. 

Singular,  Plural. 

N.  Hjerta.  N.  Hjertan. 

G.  Hjertas.  G.  Hjertans, 

V.'  &  A.  J  ^'"■"'-  v!  &  A.  }  ^■«'-'««- 

l^yif/t  Declension, 

§  37.  Nouns  of  this  declension,  or  such  as  are  the  same 
in  the  singular  and  the  plural,  are  neuter,*  and  of  different 
terminations.     (See  §  45,   Obs.  8.) 

*  Except  those  ending  in  are^  which  are  masculine  j  e.  g.  Bagare,  baker 
and  bakers. 


12  NOUN. 

Ex. :  Rum,  room  and  rooms. 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  Rum.  N.  Rum. 

G.  Rums.  G.  Rums, 


D.  A.       >  ^  D.  A.       )  ^ 

V.&A.  /^^"^-  V.&A.  1^^^^- 


Observations  on  the  Nouns. 

§  38.  Obs.  1.  Some  nouns  are  only  used  in  the  sin- 
gular ;  as,  Hopp,  hope,  Talg,  tallow,  Hjelpj  help,  and 
those  ending  in  an,  as  Ldngtan,  longing ;  others  only  in 
the  plural ;  as,  Fordldrar,  parents,  Kidder,  cloths  ;  and  some 
have  an  irregular  plural ;  as,  Gas,  goose,  pi.  Gdss ;  Oga, 
eye,  pi.  Ogon. 

§  39.  Obs.  2.  Nouns  of  the  second  declension,  ending 
with  e  in  the  singular,  leave  out  the  e  in  the  plural ;  e.  g. 
Raky  pole,  pi.  Palar ;  but  all  other  vowels  remain. 

§  40.  Obs.  3.  The  plural  termination  ar  suffers  no  con- 
traction, though  the  noun  ends  with  a  vowel ;  e.  g.  Sky^ 
sky,  pi.  Skyar ;  A,  river,  pi.  Aar ;   O,  island,  pi.  Oer. 

§41.  Obs.  4k.  In  the  singular  number,  if  the  letter  preced- 
ing the  last  in  a  word  of  this  declension  be  a  vowel,  then  that 
vowel  is  left  out  in  the  plural ;  e.  g.  Himmel,  heaven,  pi. 
Himlar ;  Afton^  evening,  pi.  Aftnar.  But  if  the  word  be 
monosyllabic,  the  vowel  must  be  retained  ;  e.  g.  Sten,  stone, 
pi.  Slenar ;   Dal,  dale,  pi.  Dalar. 

§  42.  Obs.  5.  In  a  few  nouns  belonging  to  this  declension, 
the  0  in  the  singular  is  changed  into  6  in  the  plural  ;  e.  g. 
Modcr,  mother,  pi.  Mpdrar  ;  Dotter,  daughter,  pi.  Ddttrar. 

§  43.  Obs.  6.  If  a  noun  of  the  third  declension  end 
in  the  singular  with  a  Vowel,  r  only  is  added  in  the  plural  ; 
e.  g.  Hiistru,  wife,  pi.  Hustrur,  not  Hustruer ;  Sko,  shoe, 
pi.  Skor,  not  Skoer.^     In   some  words  of  this  declension, 

*  Nouns  of  the  neuter  gender  (all  of  which  end  with  i)  are  excepted 
from  this  rule  j  e.  g.  Bryggeri,  brewery,  pi.  Bryggerier.    Also  words  adopt- 


NOUN.  13 

also,  the  vowel  in  the  singular  is  changed  into  another  in  the 
plural ;  e.  g.  Hand,  hand,  pi.  H'dnder ;  Fot,  foot,  pi.  Fotter, 

§  44.  Obs.  7.  If  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  admit 
of  the  definite  article  in  the  plural  (a  few  do  not),  they  only 
add  a  (not  /?a),  as  they  terminate  with  n;  thus,  we  write 
Klddena  (o^  Kl'dde,  cloth,  pi.  Kldden),  not  Klddenna, 

§  45.  Obs.  8.  When  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension, 
ending  in  «re,  are  put  in  the  definite  state,  they  are  inflected 
after  the  second  (to  which  declension  they  might  have  been 
referred,  if  they  had  not  been  the  same  in  singular  and 
plural).  The  reason  for  it  is  this  ;  they  seem  to  have  a 
double  singular,  one  with  and  one  without  the  e  final,  of 
which  the  former  is  used  when  the  word  stands  absolute, 
the  latter,  when  it  is  joined  to  another  noun,  or  to  a  proper 
name  ;  e.  g.  Fiskare^  fisherman  ;  Fiskerbat,  fishing-boat ; 
Skr'addare,  tailor  ;  Skraddar  Lant,  Lant,  the  tailor.  They 
follow  in  this  the  same  rule  as  other  uncompounded  nouns 
ending  with  e;  thus,  we  say  ew  Herre,  a  gentleman,  but 
Herr  Lant,  Mr.  Lant,  and  not  Herre  Lant,  Now  the  plural 
number,  if  inflected  after  the  absolute  singular  form  Fiskar, 
Skraddar,  must  of  course  (see  ^  41,  Obs,  4)  be  Fiskrar^ 
Skrdddrar,  and  definite  Fiskrarne,  Skraddrarne,  which 
last  is  commonly  used  in  speaking,  but  the  indefinite  state 
in  the  plural  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  singular  ;  e.  g.  en 
Fiskare,  mange  Fiskare,  many  fishers. 

§  46.  Obs.  9.  A  few  nouns  have  a  double  termination 
in  the  plural,  when  the  gender  of  the  word  must  tell  which 
is  the  original,  and  to  what  declension  they  should  properly 
be  referred ;  thus,  Brdde  {et),  board,  has  in  the  plural 
Brdden  and  Brader,  and  must  be  referred  to  the  fourth 
declension  ;  Man  (en),  man,  husband,  pi.  Maimer  and  AldUf 


ed  from  foreign  languages,  of  whatever  gender  they  may  be,  provided  they 
belong  to  this  declension  ;  e.g.'Akademie,  academy,  pi.  Akadender ;  Arme, 
army,  pi.  Armeer  ;  Slc. 


14  NOUN. 

to  the  third;  Tyg  {et),  stufF,  pi.  Tyg  and  Tyger,  to  the 
fifth  ;  Mil  (e/i),  mile,  pi.  Milar  and  Mil,  to  the  second  de- 
clension. 

§  47.  Ohs,  10.  Nouns  ending  with  5  and  x  do  not 
admit  of  the  addition  of  5  in  the  indefinite  genitive  case  ;  as, 
Is,  ice  ;  Prins,  prince ;  Vax,  wax ;  we  cannot  write  Iss, 
Prinss,  VaxSj  nor  do  we  ever  use  an  apostrophe,  as  Is^s, 
Prins'Sj  Vax^s,  for  this  would  indicate  the  absence  of  an  e, 
and  that  the  genitive  was  Ises^  &c.  It  therefore  remains  the 
same  as  in  the  nominative  case  ;  as,  en  Matros  Skicklighety 
the  ability  of  a  sailor,  not  Matross  or  Matros^ s.  But  this 
genitive  case  is  mostly  avoided  by  construing  the  word  with 
the  particle  af)  as,  Skonheten  af  en  Vers,  the  beauty  of  a 
verse;  Tjockheten  of  en  Is,  the  thickness  of  an  ice;  instead 
of  en  Vers  Skonhet,  en  Is  Tjockhet. 

§  48.  Obs,  11.  When  nouns  denoting  quantity,  num- 
ber, weight,  and  measure  are  placed  before  other  substan- 
tives, as  descriptive  of  them,  it  is  seldom  necessary  in  the 
Swedish  language  that  the  particle  q/' should  be  expressed; 
thus,  we  speak  and  write  correctly,  en  hop  Folk,  a  crowd 
of  people ;  et  dussin  Knappar,  a  dozen  of  buttons ;  et  par 
Skor,  a  pair  of  shoes  ;  en  tunna  Ol,  a  barrel  of  beer  ;  et 
stycke  Land,  a  piece  of  land;  et  glas  Fm,  a  glass  of  wine.* 

^  49.  Ohs.  12.  A  few  nouns  in  the  Swedish,  as  well 
as  in  the  English,  are  used  collectively  in  the  singular,  al- 
though they  have  a  plural;  e.  g.  fanga  Fisk,  to  catch  fish, 
not  Fiskar ;  tre  Fot  lang,  three  feet  long,  not  Fotter ; 
Tiundra  tusen  Man,  hundred  thousand  men,  not  Man, 


*  If  the  substantive^  so  described,  stands  in  the  definite  state,  we  always 
find  the  particle  expressed  3  e.  g.  et  glas  af  Vinet,  one  glass  of  the  wine. 


ADJECTIVE.  15 

CHAPTER  VI. 

ADJECTIVE. 

General  Statement. 

§  50.  Adjectives  in  Swedish  are  varied  in  two  general 
ways,  viz.  by  comparison  and  by  declension.  These  varia- 
tions are  both  made  by  the  addition  of  one  or  more  letters 
to  the  original  simple  form. 

Comparison. 

^  51.  There  are  in  Swedish,  as  in  English,  three  degrees 
of  comparison  ;  the  positive,  comparative,  and  superlative. 
All  adjectives  may  be  compared,  whose  sense  will  admit  of 
comparison. 

§  52.  The  regular  variation  of  adjectives  in  comparison 
is  effected  by  adding  are  to  the  simple  form  for  the  com- 
parative degree,  and  ast  for  the  superlative  :*  e.  g. 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Blot,  soft,  blotare,  softer,  blotast,  softest. 

Vis,  wise,  visare,  wiser,  visast,  wisest. 

Ljuf,  sweet,  Ijufvare,  sweeter,  Ijufvast,  sweetest. 

Gron,  green,  gronare,  greener,  grojiastf  greenest. 

■§  53.  When  adjectives  end  in  al,  el,  en,  or  cr,  the  a 
or  the  c  in  these  syllables  is  frequently  dropped  for  the 
sake  of  euphony  ;  e.  g.  gammal,  old,  comp.  gamlare,  not 
gnmmdlare  ;  dubbel,  double,  comp.  dubblare,  not  dubbelare ; 
&c. 

§  54.  Some  adjectives  change  the  vowel  in  the  com- 
parisons ;  e.  g.  lang,  long,  I'dngre,  Idngst,  not  langre, 
langst ;  ung,  young,  yngre,  yngst,  not  ungre,  ungst.  Others 
have  lost  their  positive  degree,  which  may  be  more  or  less 

*  A  few  leave  out  the  a,  retaining  only  re  and  st  j  e.  g.  hSg,  high,  IWgre, 
lidgst,  not  hDgare,  hOgast. 

8 


16  ADJECTIVE. 

traced  in  other  languages  of  the  same  origin ;  thus,  for  in- 
stance, dldre,  didst,  older,  oldest,  have  no  positive  degree  in 
the  Swedish,  &.c. 

§  55.  Several  adjectives  exhibit  irregular  forms  of  com- 
parison ;  e.  g. 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Lille,  little,  mindre,  less,  minst,  least. 

Gody  good,  bdttre,  better,  bast,  best. 

Ond,  bad,  vdrre,  worse,  vdrst,  worst. 

Hog,  high,  hdgre,  higher,  ^  hogst,  highest. 

Declension. 

§  56.  Adjectives  are  in  Swedish  declined  in  the  geni- 
tive case,  by  adding  an  s  to  the  nominative;  e.  g.  glad, 
o-lad,  gen.  glads,  comp.  gladares.  The  superlative  degree 
does  not  admit  of  an  absolute  or  indefinite  genitive  case  ; 
we  cannot  say  gladasts  ;  and  if  we  say  gladastes,  we  speak 
definitely.  When  adjectives  end  in  s,  they  admit  of  an  ab- 
solute or  indefinite  genitive  case  only  in  the  comparative 
degree,  as  visares.     Vis's  is  as  improper  as  visasts, 

§  57.  Adjectives  have  three  genders,  of  which  the  mas- 
culine and  feminine  singular  are  always  the  same;  as, 
glad  Man,  glad  man,  glad  Mode?*,  glad  mother ;  but  the 
neuter  is  formed  by  adding  a  t,  as  gladt  Folk,  unless  the 
word  ends  with  t  or  en.  In  the  former  case  it  is  the  same 
through  all  the  genders  ;  as,  fast,  strong,  salt,  salt ;  in  the 
latter,  en  is  changed  into  et ;  as,  liten,  neut.  litef.  (See  §  62, 
Obs.  3.) 

§  58.  The  plural  number  is  formed  by  adding  e  or  a  to 
the  positive  singular  ;  as,  glad,  pi.  glade  or  glada*  The 
comparative  and  superlative  degrees  are  the  same  in  both 


*  E  was  formerly  meant  for  the  masculine  gender  only,  as  a  is  still  for 
the  feminine  and  neuter;  but  in  later  times  a  is  (with  a  few  exceptions) 
used  as  well  for  the  masculine  as  for  the  other  two  genders,  just  as  eu- 
phony requires. 


ADJECTIVE.  17 

numbers  ;  as,  vis,  pK  vise  or  visa,  comp.  visare,  superl.  vi- 
sast, 

§  59.  Adjectives  ending  with  a  are  through  all  the  gen- 
ders the  same  both  in  the  singular  and  plural ;  as,6ra,  good, 
ringa,  poor,  stilla,  quiet,  &c. 

Observations  on  the  Adjectives. 

§  60.  Obs.  1.  Such  adjectives  as  do  not  admit  of  a 
regular  comparison  express  the  comparative  and  superla- 
tive degrees  by  mer  and  mast,  more,  most ;  or  mindre  and 
minst,  less,  least.  Of  this  kind  are  chiefly  all  ending  with 
ad  (except  glad),  and  such  as  are  formed  of  proper  names, 
all  of  which  end  in  sk',  as,  platonisJc,  Platonic ;  romersic,  Ro- 
man ;  we  cannot  say  platonisJcare,  romerskast,  &lc. 

^  61.  Obs.  2.  As  the  superlative  does  not,  strictly 
speaking,  imply  the  highest  degree,  but  only  a  degree  be- 
yond the  comparative,  we  put  before  it  the  particle  aldra, 
very,  when  we  wish  to  raise  it  still  more  in  signification ;  as, 
det  aldraminste,  the  very  least ;  aldraddmjukaste,  very  hum- 
blest ;  &c. 

§  62.  Obs,  3.  Adjectives  ending  with  en  change  that 
termination  into  et  in  the  neuter  gender,  except  the  five  fol- 
lowing monosyllabics  :  gen,  short ;  Men,  slender  ;  len,  soft ; 
re»,  clean ;  sen,  late ;  which  there  add  a  ^ ;  as,  gent,  klent, 
lent,  rent,  sent.  And  of  such  adjectives  as  end  with  t 
(which  it  has  elsewhere  been  stated  remain  the  same  through 
all  the  genders),  the  following  nine  (also  monosyllabics)  form 
an  exception  ;  e.  g.fet,  fat ;  flat,  level ;  het,  hot ;  hvit^  white  ; 
lat^  idle  ;  r'dt,  straight ;  slat,  smooth ;  sot,  sweet ;  vat,  wet. 
These  end  the  neuter  gender  with  tt ;  as,  fett,  flatt,  hett, 
hvitt,  latt,  r'dtt,  sldtt,  sott,  vatt, 

§  63.  Obs,  4.  As  adjectives,  when  placed  in  the  defi- 
nite state,  are  the  same  in  all  genders,  except  that  the  vowels 
e  and  a  vary  in  the  positive  degree  (see  §  27),  the  neuter 
termination  t  is  then  always  left  out;  as,  det  hoga  hus,  the 
lofty  house,   not  det  hogta  hus  (after  the  indefinite  hogt). 


18  ADJECTIVE. 

The  same  is  to  be  observed  in  the  plural  number,  whether 
the  adjective  be  definite  or  indefinite. 

^  64.  Obs.  5.  Liten,  neut.  litet,  little,  is  irregular  in 
the  definite  state,  as  well  as  in  the  comparisons  (see  ^  49). 
For  the  plural  number,  which  litcn  has  not,  we  use  a  quite 
different  word,  viz.  smciy  small,  which  is  also  irregular  in 
the  comparisons,  viz.  smdrre,  smarst,  not  smaare,  smaast. 

§  65.  Obs.  6.  When  an  adjective  is  formed  from  two 
other  adjectives,  as  blekgul,  pale  yellow  (from  blek,  pale, 
and  guly  yellow),  the  latter  only  is  inflected  ;  thus,  in  the 
genitive  case  we  say  hlekguls^  not  hlehsguls. 

Form  and  Position  of  Adjectives. 

§  66.  As  to  the  place  of  an  adjective,  when  joined  to  a 
substantive,  the  Swedish  language  acknowledges  precisely 
the  same  rules  as  the  Danish ;  e.  g.  en  stor  Dag,  a  great 
day ;  langa  Armer,  long  arms ;  Mannen  ar  lycklig^  the 
man  is  happy ;  lycklig  ar  den  Man,  happy  is  the  man  ; 
Alexander  den  Slore^  Alexander  the  Great;  den  store  Alex- 
ander, the  great  Alexander ;  and  it  is  the  same  when  ad- 
jectives are  explained  as  participles ;  e.  g.  en  Sak  ryslig 
at  se  pa,  a  thing  horrible  to  look  at ;  &c. 

§  67.  An  adjective  (pronoun  or  participle  used  as  an 
adjective)  agrees  with  its  substantive  in  gender  and  number  ; 
e.  g.  stor  Man,  great  man  ;  stort  Has,  great  house ;  stora 
Hattar^  great  hats  ;  min  Syster,  my  sister ;  mitt  Hus,  my 
house ;  en  dlskad  Moder,  a  beloved  mother ;  et  dlskadt 
Barn,  a  beloved  child  ;  &lQj,  But  not  so  in  the  cases  ;  in 
the  nominative  they  are  always  alike;  but  if  the  substantive 
stands  in  the  genitive  case,  with  its  adjective  before  it,  the 
substantive  only  is  so  inflected ;  e.  g.  en  stor  Mans  Hatt, 
the  hat  of  a  great  man,  not  en  stors  Mans  Hatt ;  and  defi- 
nitely stora  Mannens  Hatt,  not  storas,  &c. 

§  68.  If  an  adjective  be  joined  ^o  a  proper  name,  as  ex- 
pressive of  its  rank,  order,  or  qualifications,  as  Gustaf  Adolf 


ADJECTIVE.  19 

den  tappre,  Gastavus  Adolphus  the  brave,  and  the  context 
requires  that  name  to  be  in  the  genitive  case,  then  the  ad- 
jective only  is  so  inflected  ;  as,  Gust af  den  first es  Verlc,  the 
work  of  Gustavus  the  First,  not  Gustafs  den  firstes  ;  and 
such  adjectives  being  always  preceded  by  the  pronoun,  or 
rather  demonstrative  particle,  den,  are  always  definite. 

§  69.  When  an  adjective  stands  absolute,  or  without  its 
substantive,  it  may  also  be  inflected  in  the  genitive  case  ;  as, 
en  stors^  a  great  one's,  and  definitely  denstoraSy  pi.  destoras, 
the  great  ones'.* 

§  70.  If  two  or  more  substantives  in  the  singular  require 
a  verb  to  be  plural,  the  following  adjective  is  also  placed  in 
the  plural ;  e.  g.  Handen,  Fingret,  och  Ringen  voro  stora, 
the  hand,  the  finger,  and  the  ring,  were  great,  not  stor ;  but 
if  the  verb  remains  in  the  singular,  the  adjective  remains 
there  also;  e.  g.  Handen^  Fiiigret,  och  sjelfva  Ringen  var 
stor,  the  hand,  the  finger,  and  the  ring  itself  was  great ;  not 
stor  a,  unless  we  say  voro, 

§  71.  An  adjective  is  placed  in  the  definite  state  without 
its  substantive  being  so,  —  1st.  After  the  definite  pronouns; 
e.  g.  du  vise  Man,  thou  wise  man ;  din  stora  Stad,  thy  great 
city  ;  not  du  vis  Man,  din  stor  Stad,  except  after  den  and 
denne,  which,  chiefly  when  signifying  dender  and  denhdr,  re- 
quire the  substantive  also  to  be  definite  (see  §  28).  The 
word  egen,  neut.  eget^  occurs,  used  both  definite  and  indefi- 
nite, after  a  definite  pronoun  ;  we  may  say,  min  egna  Van,  and 
min  egen  Van,  my  own  friend,  and  although  egna  is  gram- 
matically correct,  yet  daily  use  and  universal  custom  have 
made  egen  more  common  and  more  correct. 

2d.  After  the  interjections,  they  may  be  expressed  or 
not;  e.g.  O!  store  Konung,  great  king;  Ack!  lyckliga 
Dag,  happy  day ;  except  when  the  indefinite  article  stands 
between  ;  e.  g.  O  !  en  stor  Konung,  Ack  !  en  lycklig  Dagj 

*  This  construction  is  seldom  met  with  when  the  adjective  is  indefinite. 

8* 


20  PRONOUN. 

or  when  a  pronoun  follows  after  the  adjective  and  separates 
it  from  its  substantive ;  e.  g.  Ack !  lycklig  du  Konung ; 
Ack !  sail  den  Konung,  som,  &c.,  O,  happy  the  king, 
who,  &c. 

3d.  When  a  noun  (pronoun  or  participle),  that  belongs 
to  the  same  sentence,  precedes  it  in  the  genitive  case ;  e.  g. 
Komingens  vackra  Stad,  the  king's  beautiful  city;  en  an- 
nans  goda  Halt,  the  good  hat  of  another ;  den  simmandes 
hvita  Arm,  the  white  arm  of  the  swimming  (man)  ;  not 
vacker,  god,  hvit.  This  relates  also  to  the  definite  numerals, 
when  used  as  adjectives  (see  §  149,  note). 

§  72.  An  adjective  is  indefinite,  although  its  substantive 
be  definite,  when  it  is  emphatically  used  as  a  predicate  (and 
not  preceded  by  den)  ;  thus,  when  we  say  in  English,  Great 
is  the  man,  or  The  man  is  great,  the  Swedish  has  it,  stor  dr 
Mannen,  and  Mannen  dr  stor ;  and  this,  whether  they  stand 
close  to  each  other,  or  are  separated  by  one  or  more  inter- 
vening words  ;  as,  Huset,  som  synes  pa  Af stand,  Jian  vara 
stort,  the  house,  which  is  seen  at  a  distance,  may  be  great. 

§  73.  An  adjective  agrees  with  its  substantive  in  all 
other  cases,  as  well  as  in  those  mentioned  above. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PRONOUN. 
General  Statement. 

§  74.  There  are  two  general  classes  of  pronouns  in 
Swedish,  as  in  Danish,  viz.  substantive  and  adjective.  Be- 
sides this,  every  pronoun  is  in  itself  either  definite  or  indefi- 
nite, which  best  appears  from  the  power  it  has  on  the  ad- 
jectives in  the  definite  state,  whilst  the  indefinite  leaves  the 
adjectives  also  indefinite.     The  definite  are  chiefly  the  per- 


PRONOUN.  21 

sonal,  possessive,  and  demonstrative  pronouns ;  of  indefinite 
pronouns,  some  are  substantive  and  some  adjective. 

Personal  Pronouns. 

§  75.  In  Swedish,  as  in  Danish,  there  is  a  peculiar  pro- 
noun for  each  person,  and  the  pronouns  of  the  first  and 
second  persons  are  of  the  same  form  for  every  gender,  that 
of  the  third  alone  being  varied  for  the  masculine,  feminine, 
and  neuter  genders  in  the  singular,  while  its  form  is  the 
same  for  all  the  genders  in  the  plural. 

§  76.  The  pronoun  of  the  first  person  is  declined  as 
follows :  — 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  jag,  N.  vi, 

D.  A.       ?         .  G.  vores. 

V.&A.^     ^^^-  D.A.       ) 

V.  &  A.  )  ^^^* 

§  77.  The  pronoun  of  the  second  person  is  declined  as 
follows:  — 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  du.  N.  /. 

D.  &/  A.  dig,  G.  eders, 

V.  du,  D.  &  A.  eder  or  jer, 

A.  dig.  V.  /. 

A.  eder. 

§  78.  The  pronoun  of  the  third  person  is  declined  as 
follows :  — 

Singular, 

Masculine.  Feminine.  JYeuter. 

N.  han.         N.  hon,         N.  det, 

G.  hans,        G.  Jiennes,     G.  dess. 


D.  &  A.  ham.         D.  &  A.  henne.      D.  A. 
V.  han.         V.  ho7i.         V.  & 

A.  ham.         A.  henne. 


22  PjRONOUN. 

Plural  for  the  three  Genders, 
N.  de,       G.  deres,        D.  &  A.  dem,        V.  de.        A.  c?e?w. 

Possessive  Pronouns, 

^  79.     The  possessive  pronouns  are  :  — 

First  Person, 

Singular.  Plural, 

min,  neut.  mitt.  mine  or  mina, 

var,  neut.  vart.  vare  or  vara. 

Second  Person, 

Singular.  Plural, 

din,  neut.  ditt.  dine  or  dina. 

eder,  neut.  edert,  edre  or  ec?ra. 

Third  Person, 

Singular.  Plural, 

sin,  neut.  sitt,  sine  or  szwa. 

Example  :  —  han  tog  sin  Hatt^  he  took  his  (own)  hat ; 
han  tog  hans  Hatt,  he  took  his  (another's)  hat ;  de  toge 
sina  Hatter,  they  took  their  hats.* 

Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

^  80.     The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  :  — 

Singular,  Plural. 

N.  den,  neut.  det,  N.  de 

G.  dens,     "     dets,  G.  deres, 

^'  ^'       \    den       "     det  ^'  ^  ^'  ^^'^' 

A.  dem. 

*  There  are  some  who  never  use  5in  and  sina,  when  the  preceding  noun 
or  pronoun  to  which  it  refers  stands  in  the  plural  j  but  always,  in  that  case, 
deras ;  e.  g.  de  toge  deras  Hatter,  they  took  their  hatsj  de  alska  deras  {sitt) 
Barn,  they  love  their  child. 


PRONOUN.  23 

Singular, 
N.  denne  or  denna,  neut.  delta, 

G.  dennes  or  dennas,  neut.  deltas, 

DA) 

V  Ar'  A    I    ^^'^'^^  ^^  denna,  neut.  cfe^^a. 

P/wraZ. 
N.  c/e5se  or  dessa, 

G,  dessas, 

y\t  A    i    desse  or  dessa. 

Singular.  Plural, 

andre  or  andra.  andre  or  andra. 

G.  andras,  G.  andras. 

§  81.  The  singular  of  this  pronoun  (as  well  as  s/e//*)  is 
the  same  as  the  plural,  which,  if  not  made  definite  by  de^ 
leaves  the  following  substantive  in  the  indefinite  state;  e.  g. 
andra  Hat  tar,  or  de  andra  Hattarne,  other  hats,  the  other 
hats.  This  latter  observation,  however,  does  not  relate  to 
sjelf,  which,  when  used  as  an  adjective  pronoun,  always 
places  its  substantive  in  the  definite  state ;  we  cannot  say, 
sjelfva  Hattar,  but  sjelfva  Hattarne,  the  very  hats. 

Relative  Pronouns. 

§  82.     The  relative  pronouns  are  :  — 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  hvilken,  neut.  hvilket.  N.  Jivilke  or  hvilka, 

G.  hvilkens,     "     hvilkets.        G.  hvilkas. 

This  pronoun  is  also  used  as  interrogative. 

Interrogative  Pronouns. 

^  83.     The  interrogative  pronouns  are  :  — 

Singular,  Plural. 

N.  Iio  or  hvem,  neut.  hvad,  N.  ho  or  hvem. 

G.  kvems,  neut.  hvems,  G.  hvems. 


24  PRONOUN. 

§  84.  Som^  the  common  subjunctive  pronoun,  answers 
to  who,  which,  and  that.  It  is  used  both  after  persons  and 
things,  and  never  begins  a  sentence. 

§  85.  Hvar,  neut.  hvart,  every,  gen.  hvars  ;  this  geni- 
tive, when  not  compounded,  answers  to  whose. 

^  86.  3Ian  is  the  impersonal  pronoun,  commonly  trans- 
lated as  one  or  we  ;  e.  g.  man  kan  ej\  one  cannot ;  hvad 
shall  man  gora  ?  what  shall  we  do  ? 

The  rest  of  the  pronouns  are  easily  learned  by  practice  ; 
and  such  as  are  compounded  are  generally  inflected  as 
when  single ;  thus  the  neuter  gender  of  hvarannan,  every 
other,  is  hvartannat ;  the  genitive  case  of  hvarochen,  every 
one,  is  hvarochens. 

Observations  on  the  Pronouns. 

§  87.  Obs,  1 .  The  personal  pronoun  du,  thou,  is  much 
more  used  in  the  Swedish  language  than  it  is  in  the  Eng- 
lish ;  man  and  wife  always  address  each  other  by  that 
name;  parents  use  it  when  speaking  to  their  children,  and 
intimate  friends  in  speaking  to  each  other.* 

§  88.  Obs.  2.  In  common  conversation  we  pronounce 
the  words  mig^  dig,  sig,  as  if  they  were  written  mej^  dfj,  sej, 
and  this  is  so  generally  the  case,  that,  in  order  to  speak  like 
others,  we  are  obliged  to  conform  to  it.  But  in  oratorical 
delivery  this  mode  of  pronouncing  must  be  carefully  avoided. 

§  89.  Obs,  3.  Before  the  second  person  plural  (/) 
custom  has  put  an  n  (?«*),  which  letter  is  the  characteristic 
of  that  person  in  all  verbs;  as,  hafen,  hafuen,  varden;  and, 
being  used  in  questions,  the  final  n  of  the  verb  seems  in- 
sensibly to  have  fallen  in  with  the  personal  pronoun ;  as, 
hafveni  instead  of  hofven  I ;  and  thus,  probably,  was  ni 


*  For  tu,  tin,  then,  and  thenne,  which  mode  of  spelling  occurs  in  the 
Bible  and  the  code  of  civil  laws,  we  now  write  du,  din,  den,  denne. 


PRONOUN.  35 

brought  into  use  instead  of  /,  and  is  now  pretty  generally 
admitted,  not  only  in  conversation,  but  even  in  writing. 

§  90.  Ohs.  4.  Du  (except  in  the  before-mentioned 
cases)  and  I  or  ni  are  never  used  but  when  speaking  to  in- 
feriors. We  then  address  a  boy  or  girl  as  du,  and  a  man  or 
woman  as  ni.  When  we  write  or  speak  to  superiors,  or  such 
as  we  owe  respect  or  wish  to  be  polite  to,  we  use  the  words, 
Herre,  sir ;  FrUy  madam ;  Froken,  Mansell,  Jungfru,^ 
miss,  &c. ;  which  are  then  (except  those  that  end  with  w, 
as  Baron,  and  also  the  word  Mamselt)  put  in  the  definite 
state  ;  as,  vill  Herren  get  1 1  do  you  wish  to  go,  sir  ?  hat 
Frun  sett  det  7  have  you  seen  it,  madam  ?  but,  vill  Froken 
ga  ?  har  Mamsell  sett  det  1  In  the  plural  number  all  these 
complimentary  words  and  titles  are  put  in  the  definite  state ; 
as,  liar  Baronerna  varit  der  1  have  you  been  there,  barons? 
hum  ma  Damerna  (of  Dam,  lady)  ?  how  do  you  do,  ladies? 
This  relates  also  to  the  family  names  Fader,  Moder,  Bro- 
der,  and  Syster;  as,  ha  Systrana  sett  det  ?  have  you  seen 
it,  sisters?  but  in  the  singular  these  must  be  indefinite ;  as, 
har  Syster  (not  Systrtn)  sett  det  ?  If,  besides  the  words 
Herre  and  Fru,  the  title  of  the  person  is  also  mentioned 
(which  in  politer  addresses  always  is  observed),  then  these 
words  remain  in  the  indefinite  state,  but  the  title  is  placed 
in  the  definite  ;  as,  vill  Frit  Majorskan  komma  1  not  Frun  \ 
and  in  this  case  the  final  e  of  the  word  Herre  is,  as  before 
stated  (see  ^  45,  Ohs.  8),  always  omitted ;  as,  vill  Hcrr 
Majoren  komma  1  &/C. 

§  91.  Ohs,  5.  Honom  (of  han),  henne  (of  hon),  and 
det,  suffer  a  strange  contraction  in  common  speaking. 
Instead  of  saying  honom,  they  only  add  an  n  to  the  preced- 


*  We  address  a  nobleman's  daughter  as  FrDken ;  a  gentleman's  daughter 
as  Mamsell ;  and  one  of  the  third  class  as  Jungfru,  which  signifies  virgin  or 
maid. 

t  The  word  Herre  is  (in  the  definite  state)  pronounced  Hem,  and  even 
frequently  written  so. 


26  PRONOUN. 

ing  word  ;  e.  g.  liar  du  setVn,  for  liar  du  sett  honom ;  and 
instead  of  henne  and  det,  they  add  in  the  same  manner  na 
and  t;  e.  g.  5e'n«,  for  se  henne ;  se  pa't,  for  se  pa  det ;  but 
these  abbreviations,  though  too  commonly  used  in  familiar 
conversation,  are  far  from  being  elegant,  and  ought  to  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

^  92.  Ohs,  6.  Vars  is  an  obsolete  genitive  sing,  of 
var,  and  occurs  only  in  the  Scriptures.  Eders,  the  gen. 
sing,  of  eder,  is  used  before  titles ;  as,  Eders  Nad,  your 
grace ;  Eders  Hogliet,  your  highness ;  Eders  Kungliga 
Majestdt,  your  royal  majesty.  As  /  or  ni  can  never  be 
used  but  when  they  are  rendered  in  the  nominative,  or 
rather  vocative  case,  the  word  Eder  supplies  the  other 
cases,  and  is  then  always  contracted  into  Er.  We  cannot 
say,  jag  gof  det  at  ni^jag  har  sett  /,  but  jag  gaf  det  at  er, 
I  gave  it  to  you,  jag  har  sett  er,  I  have  seen  you.  The 
same  contraction  we  find  even  when  Eder  is  used  as  an 
adjective ;  as,  Er  son  ar  stor,  your  son  is  great ;  and  in  the 
neuter  gender,  lir  det  Ert  Barn  ?  is  it  your  child  ? 

^  93.  Obs.  7.  Although  the  pronoun  sin,  neut.  sitt,  is 
used  as  an  adjective,  it  never  occurs  in  the  nominative  case. 
We  cannot  say,  Han  och  sin  Far  (contr.  for  Fader)  Icomma; 
Han  sade  at  sin  Mor  (contr.  for  Moder)  ar  hemma ;  but 
Han  och  lians  Far  komm,  he  and  his  father  came ;  Han 
sade  at  hans  Mor  var  hemma,  he  said  that  his  mother  is  at 
home. 

^  94.  Ohs.  8.  The  indefinite  pronoun  nagon,  any,  is 
in  the  neuter  gender  nagot,  and  in  the  plural  nagre  or  na- 
gra,  gen.  nagras.  Ingen,  no  or  none,  is  in  the  neuter  iiitet, 
pi.  inga.  Intet  is  in  common  conversation  frequently  used 
for  ej  or  iclce  ;  d.s,jag  han  det  intet  (e/),  I  have  it  not;  but 
we  cannot  with  propriety  so  use  it  in  writing. 

§  95.  Ohs.  9.  The  demonstrative  pronoun  den,  that,  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  relative  (for  som  or  hvilken),  when  the 
preceding  noun  is  indefinite ;  we  may  say.  En  V'dg,  den 


VERBS.  27 

jag  lean  ga,  a  road  that  I  can  go ;  but  not  (it  seems),  Vdgen 
den  jog  kan  get;  for  Vdgen,  being  definite  already  (and  we 
may  resolve  it  into  den  Vdg)^  needs  no  further  definition, 
and  we  therefore  write,  Vdgen,  som  jag  kan  ga. 

§  96.  Ohs,  10.  Hvilkeny  when  used  either  in  ques. 
tions,  or  as  a  relative,  must  agree  in  gender  and  number 
with  the  noun  to  which  it  refers ;  e.  g.  hvilken  {Man)  sag 
du?  which  (man)  did  yjou  see?  hvilket  [Hus)  vil  du  se? 
what  (house)  will  you  see?  and  in  the  genitive  case,  hvilkens 
{hvilken  Mans)  dr  det  ?  hvilket s  {hvilket  Sdlskaps)  dr  det? 
to  what  company  does  it  belong?  han  soker  den  Lon, 
hvilken  han  vet  sig  fortjena,  he  seeks  the  reward  which  he 
is  conscious  he  deserves ;  han  fruktar  for  Hafvet  hvilket 
han  tror  vara  farligt,  he  fears  the  sea,  which  he  believes 
to  be  dangerous, 

§  97.  Ohs,  11.  The  pronoun  hvad,  what,  is  often 
(chiefly  in  questions)  followed  by  the  particle  yor;  e.g. 
hvad  for  Fisk  ?  what  kind  of  fish  ?  hvad  for  en  Man  ? 
what  man  ?  But  this  is  not  to  be  admitted  in  classical 
writing. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

VERBS. 
General  Statement. 

§  98.  Swedish  verbs,  like  the  verbs  in  Danish,  are 
either  transitive  or  intransitive.  Transitive  verbs  are  those 
which  necessarily  suppose  some  object  on  which  they  may 
operate  ;  intransitive  verbs  are  those  which  require  no  such 
object ;  e.  g.  besitta,  to  possess,  is  a  transitive  verb,  since 
it  requires  an  object,  something  to  be  possessed ;  but  sofva, 
to  sleep,  is  intransitive,  for  we  cannot  sleep  any  thing. 

^  99,  Reflexive  verbs  in  Swedish  are  so  called  because 
9 


28  VERBS. 

the  thing  expressed  by  the  verb  falls  back,  as  it  were,  upon 
the  subject ;  e.  g.  jag  dhkar  niig^  I  love  myself. 

^  100.  Verbs  are  either  simple  or  compound.  Com- 
pound verbs  are  formed  by  joining  particles  to  the  simple 
verbs  ;  e.  g.  utfora,  to  export,  is  compounded  of  the  sim- 
ple verb  forn^  to  carry,  and  z//,  out. 

§  101.  Swedish  verbs,  like  Danish,  are  varied  by  means 
of  voice,  mode,  tense,  number,  and  person. 

§  102.     The  voices  are  as  in  Danish. 

§  103.  There  are  five  modes,  the  infinitive,  indicative, 
potential,  optative,  and  imperative.  Besides,  there  are  two 
participles,  the  present  and  perfect. 

^  104.  There  are  three  tenses  in  the  infinitive  mode, 
viz.  the  present,  perfect,  and  future  ;  five  in  the  indicative, 
viz.  the  present,  imperfect,  perfect,  pluperfect,  and  future  ; 
and  one,  the  present,  in  the  imperative  and  optative  modes. 

^  105.  There  are  two  numbers,  the  singular  and  plural. 
The  distinction  of  number  belongs  to  all  the  tenses  of  the 
verb,  except  those  of  the  infinitive. 

^  106.  There  are  three  persons  to  each  number,  cor- 
responding with  the  persona]  pronouns,  viz.  the  first,  second, 
and  third. 

§  107.  In  Swedish,  as  in  Danish,  many  of  the  verbs 
are  irregular  in  their  conjugation.  These  irregularities  bear 
a  considerable  similarity  to  the  irregularities  of  Danish 
verbs.  Regular  verbs  are  conjugated  by  mere  changes  of 
termination,  and  the  aid  of  auxiliary  verbs;  irregular  verbs 
exhibit  changes  in  the  substantial  part  of  their  form. 

Auxiliary  Verbs. 

^  108.  The  proper  auxiliary  verbs  in  Swedish  are  four 
in  number,  viz.  att  hafva^  to  have,  att  vara,  to  be,  att 
varda,  and  att  hlifva,  to  become.* 

*  Jog"  blifver  and  ja§  varde)'  are  translated;  I  be,  Twill  be,  I  become, 


VERBS. 


29 


§  109.     The  auxiliary  verb  att  hafva^  to  have,  is  con- 
jugated as  follows  :  — 


Infimtive, 

Present. 
att  hafva,  to  have. 

Perfect. 
att  hafva  hafty  to  have  had 

Future. 

att  skola  hafva^  to  be  about 
to  have. 

Indicative, 
Present, 
Singular, 
jag  hnfver  or  Aar,  I  have. 
du  hofver  or  har^  thou  hast. 
hariy  hon,   det  hafver  or  Aar, 
he,  she,  it  has. 
Plural, 
vi  hafva,  we  have. 
I  hafven,  you  have. 
de  hafva,  they  have. 

Perfect. 
Singular, 
jag  har  haft,  I  have  had. 


Participles, 
Present. 
hafvande,  having. 

Past. 
haft,  had. 


Imperfect. 
Singular, 
jag  hade,  I  had. 
du  hade,  thou  hadst. 
han  hade,  he  had. 


Plural 
vi  hade,  we  had. 
I  haden,  you  had. 
de  hade,  they  had. 

Pluperfect. 
Singular, 
jag  hade  haft,  I  had  had. 


I  grow,  according  as  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  may  require  ;  e.  g.  om 
jag  blifver  liemma,  if  I  be  at  home  ;  han  varder  kommande,  he  will  be  com- 
ing ;  han  vardt  stor,  he  became  great  j  han  hlef  fet,  he  grew  fat,  &c.  The 
verb  blifver  may  also  denote  to  remain  j  e.  2,- jag  blifver  har,  I  remain  here  ; 
but  practice  will  soon  teach  the  different  uses  and  significations  of  these 
verbs. 


30  VERBS. 

First  Future.  Second  Future. 

Singular.  Singular. 

jag  shall  hafva,  I  shall  have,    jag  skulle  hafva,   I   should 

have. 
du  shall  hafva,  thou   shalt     du  shulle  hafva^  thou  shouldst 

have.  have. 

han   shall    hafva,    he   shall     han  shulle  hafva,  he  should 
have.  have. 

Plural.  Plural. 

vi    shola    hafva,  we    shall     vi  shulle  hafva,  we  should 

have.  have. 

/  sholen   hafva,  you    shall     I  shullen  hafva,  you  should 

have.  have. 

de   shola   hafva,  they   shall     de  shulle  hafva,  they  should 

have.  have. 

Potential. 
Present.  Imperfect. 

Singular,  Singular, 

jag  mh  hafva,  I  may  have.       jag   matte   hafva^    I    might 

have. 
du    ma    hafva,    thou   mayst     du  matte  hafva,  thou  mightst 

have.  have. 

han  ma  hafva,  he  may  have,     han  matte  hafva,  he  might 

have. 
Plural,  Plural, 

vi  maga  hafva,  we  may  have,  vi  matte   hafva,    we   might 

^  have. 

I  magen    hafva,   you    may  I  matten  hafva,  you  might 

have.  have. 

de  maga  hafva,   they   may  de  matte  hafva,  they  might 

have.  have. 


VERBS. 


SI: 


Perfect.  Pluperfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

jag  ma  hafva  hafty  I  may    jag  matte  hafva  haft^  I  might 


have  had. 

Singular, 
hafve  jag,  may  I  have. 
hafve  duy  may  thou  have. 
hqfve  han,  may  he  have. 


have  had. 

Optative, 

Plural. 

hafvom  vi,  may  v^e  have. 
hafven  I,  may  you  have. 
hafve  de,  may  they  have. 


Imperative. 
Singular.  Plural. 

haf  dUy  have  thou.  Idt  oss  hafva,  let  us  have. 

hafve  han  or  Idt  honom  haf-     haf  J  or  hafven  I,  have  you. 
va,  let  him  have.  Idt  dem  hafva,  let  them  have. 

§  110.    The  auxiliary  verb  att  vara,  to  be,  is  conjugated 
as  follows  :  — 


Infinitive. 

Participles. 

Present. 

Present. 

att  vara,  to  be. 

varande,  being. 

Perfect. 

Past. 

att  hafva  varit^  to  have  been. 

varit,  been. 

Future. 

att  skola  vara,  to  be  about  to 

be. 

Indicative, 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

jag  dr,  I  am. 

jag  var,  I  was. 

du  dr,  thou  art. 

du  var,  thou  wast. 

han  dr,  he  is. 

han  var,  he  was. 

32 


VERBS, 


Plural,  Plural. 

vi  aro,  we  are.  vi  voro,  we  were. 

/  arerij  you  are.  J  voren,  you  were. 

de  dro,  they  are.  de  voro,  they  were. 

Perfect.  Pluperfect. 

Singular.  Singular, 

jag  hafver  or  har  varit,  I    jag  hade  varit,  I  had  been, 
have  been. 

First  Future.  Second  Future. 

Singular,  Singular. 

jag  shall  vara^  I  shall  be.  jag  skulle  vara,  I  should  be. 

Potential, 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

jag  ma  vara,  I  may  be. 

jag  matte  vara,  I  might  be. 

Perfect. 

Pluperfect. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

jag  ma  hafva  varit,  I 

may    jag   matte    hafva    varit, 

have  been. 

might  have  been. 

Optative. 

Singular,  • 

Plural. 

vare  jag,  may  I  be. 

varom  vi,  may  we  be. 

vare  du,  may  thou  be. 

varen  I,  may  you  be. 

vare  han,  may  he  be. 

vare  de,  may  they  be. 

Imperative, 
Singular,  Plural. 

var  du,  be  thou.  I'dt  oss  vara,  let  us  be. 

Idt  honom  vara  or  vare  han,     var  I  or  varen  I,  be  you. 
let  him  be.  Idt  dem  vara,  let  them  be. 


VERBS. 


3a 


§  111.     The  auxiliary  verbs  att  varda  and  att  blifva, 
to  become,  are  conjugated  as  follows  :  — 


Injimtive. 
Present. 
att  varda*  to  become. 

Perfect. 
att  vara  vorden,  to  have  be- 
come. 

Future. 
att  sJcola  varda,  to  be  about 
to  become. 

Indicative, 

Present. 

Singular. 
jag  varder,  I  become. 
du  vardeVy  thou  becomest. 
han  varder,  he  becomes. 

Plural. 
vi  varda,  we  become. 
I  varden,  you  become. 
de  varda,  they  become. 

Perfect. 


Participles, 

Present. 
vardande,  becoming. 

Past. 
vorden,  become. 


Singular, 


Imperfect. 
Singular, 
jag  vardt,  I  became. 
du  vardtj  thou  becamest. 
han  vardt,  he  became. 

Plural, 
vi  vordo,  we  became. 
I  vorden,  you  became. 
de  vordo,  they  became. 

Pluperfect. 
Singular, 


jag  dr  vorden,  I   have   be-  jog  var  vorden,  I   had   be- 
come, come. 

First  Future.  Second  Future. 

Singular.  Singular. 

jag  shall  varda,  I  shall  be-  jag  skulk  varda,  I  should  be- 
come, come. 


*  Blifva  is  conjugated  in  the  same  manner  as  varda. 


34^  VERBS. 

Potential. 
Present.  Imperfect. 

Singular.  Singular. 

jag  ma   varda,   I    may  be-   jag  matte  varda^  I  might  be- 
come, come. 

Perfect.  Pluperfect. 

Singular.  Singular, 

jag  ma  vara  vorden,  I  may    jag   matte    vara    vorden,   I 
have  become.  might  have  become. 

Optative. 
Singular,  Plural. 

varde  jag,  may  I  become.         vardom  vi,  may  we  become. 

varde  du^  may  thou  become,     varden  I,  may  you  become. 

varde  han,  may  he  become.       va?'de  de,  may  they  become. 

Imperative. 
Singular.  Plural. 

vard  duj  become  thou.  Idt  oss  varda,  let  us  become. 

Idt  honom  varda  or  varde  han^     vard  I  or  varden  I,  become 
let  him  become.  you. 

Idt  dem  varda,  let  them  be- 
come. 

Regular  Verbs. 

^  112.     The  regular  verbs  are  conjugated  by  a  change 
of  termination,  and  the  aid  of  the  auxiliary  verbs. 

The  regular  verb  att  dlska,  to  love,  is  conjugated  as  fol- 
lows !  — 

Active  Voice. 

Infinitive.  Participles. 

Present.  Present. 

att  dlska.  dlslcande. 

Perfect.  Past. 

att  hafva  dlskad.  dlskad. 

Future. 
att  skola  dlska. 


TERBg. 


86 


♦ 

Indicative, 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Singvldr. 

Singular. 

jag  dlskar. 

jag  dlskade. 

du  dlskar. 

du  dlskade. 

Jian  dlskar. 

han  dlskade. 

Plural. 

Plural. 

vi  dlska. 

vi  dlskade. 

Idlsken, 

, 

I  dlskaden. 

de  dlska. 

de  dlskade. 

Perfect. 

Pluperfect. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

jag  hafver  or  har  dlskad. 

jag  hade  dlskad. 

First  Future. 

Second  Future. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

jag  skall  dlska. 

Potential, 

jag  skulk  dlska. 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

jag  ma  dlska. 

jag  matte  dlska. 

Perfect. 

Pluperfect. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

jag  7na  hafva  dlskad,              jag  matte  hafva  dlskctd. 

Optative, 

Imperative. 

Singular, 

Singular. 

dlske  jag,  du,  han. 

dlska  du. 

dlska  han  or  Idt  honom  dlska. 

Plural. 

Plural. 

dlskom  vi. 

Idt  OSS  dlska. 

dlsken  L 

dlska  I  or  dlsken  I, 

dlske  de. 

Idt  dem  dlska. 

36 


VERBS. 


Passive  Voice. 

The  active  verbs  are  formed  into 
tion  of  an  s,  in  the  following  manner 

passives  by  the  addi- 

Infinitive. 
Present. 
att  dhkas. 

Participles. 

Present. 
dlskandes. 

Perfect. 
att  vara  dlskad. 

Past. 

dlskad. 

Future. 
att  skola  dlskas. 

Present. 
Singular. 
jag  dhkas. 

Indicative. 

Imperfect. 
Singular. 
jag  dLskadcs. 

Perfect. 

Singular. 

jag  ar  dlskad. 

Pluperfect. 

Singular. 

jag  var  dlskad. 

First  Future, 

Second  Future. 

Singular. 
jag  skall  dlskas. 

Singular, 
jag  skulle  dlskas. 

Present. 

Potential. 

Imperfect. 

Singular, 
jag  mh  dlskas. 

Singular, 
jag  matte  dlskas. 

Perfect. 

Singular. 

jag  ma  vara  dlskad. 

Pluperfect. 

Singular. 

jag  matte  vara  dlskad. 

Optative. 
Singular. 
ma  or  matte  jag^  du,  han  dl- 
skas. 

Plural. 
ma  or  matte  vi,  i,  de  dlskas. 

Imperative, 

Singular. 

Idt  mig^  dig,  honom  dlskas. 

Plural 
Idt  OSS,  I,  de  dlskas. 

VERBS. 


Irregular  Verbs. 

§  113.  The  irregular  verbs,  as  before  said,  exhibit 
changes  in  the  substantial  part  of  their  forms.  The  change 
of  termination  for  the  persons  is  the  same  as  in  the  regu- 
lar verbs.  In  Swedish,  as  well  as  in  other  languages,  is 
found  a  considerable  number  of  irregular  verbs ;  as  a  speci- 
men of  the  conjugation  of  these,  I  present  the  verb  att 
finncij  to  find. 


Infinitive* 

Present. 
att  finna. 

Perfect. 
atta  hafva  funnit. 

Future. 
att  skola  finna. 

Present. 


Participles. 

Present. 

finnande. 

Past. 

funnit. 


Indicative. 


Singular, 
jag  finner. 
du  finner. 
han  finner. 

Plural. 
vi  finna, 
I  finnen, 
de  finna. 

Perfect. 

Singular. 

jag  hafver  or  har  funnit. 

First  Future. 

Singular. 

jag  skall  finna. 


Imperfect. 

Singular, 
jag  fann, 
du  fann. 
han  fann. 

Plural, 
vi  funno. 
I  funnen. 
de  funno. 

Pluperfect. 
Singular, 
jag  hade  funnit. 

Second  Future. 
Singular, 
jag  skulle  finna. 


38 


VERBS. 


Potential. 


Present. 

Singular. 

jag  ma  Jinn  a. 

Perfect. 
Singular. 
jag  ma  hafva  funnit. 

Optative. 

Singular. 

fmne  jag,  du^  han» 

Plural, 
finnom  vi. 
Jinnen  I. 
Jinne  de. 


Imperfect. 
Singular, 
jag  matte  fnna. 

Pluperfect. 

Singular. 

jag  matte  hafva  funnit. 

Imperative. 
Singular, 
finn  du, 
Idt  honom  finna. 

Plural. 
Idt  OSS  fnna. 
finn  or  finnen  I. 
Idt  dem  finna. 


Irregular  verbs  that  have  the  same  signification  as  pas- 
sive verbs  have  the  inflections  as  such,  which  are  thus 
formed  like  those  of  regular  verbs. 

§  114.     Catalogue  of  some  of  the  most  common  Irregular 
Verbs. 

Present.  Imperfect. 


Infinitive. 
att  bedja,  to  beg. 
att  bita,  to  bite. 
att  binda,  to  bind 


jag  beder  or  ber.jag  bad.     < 


jag  biter, 
jag  binder. 


ait  besitttty  to  possess,  jag  besitter. 
att blifvaAorem-dm,  \    .       ,,.^ 


to  be,  to  become, 
att  bringa,  to  bring 
att  bjuda,  to  bid. 
att  brista,  to  burst. 
att  brinna,  to  burn. 
att  bryta,  to  break. 


ver. 


jag  bringar. 
jag  bjuder. 
jag  brister. 
jag  brinner. 
jag  bryter. 


jag  bet 

jag  band.  \ 

jag  besatt. 

jag  blef     } 

jag  bragte. 
jag  bjod. 
jag  brast. 
jag  brann. 
jag  brdt. 


Past. 
bedit  or 
bedt. 
bitit. 
bundit, 
bunden, 
besuttit. 
blifven^ 
blifvit. 
bragt. 
bjudit. 
brusten. 
brunnit. 
brutit. 


VERBS. 


Infinitive. 

aft  b'dra,  to  bear. 

att  bora,  ought. 
att  draga,  to  draw. 
att  drickay  to  drink. 

att  drifva,  to  drive. 

attfinna,  to  find. 

att  fiyta,  to  flow. 

att  fly ^a,  to  fly. 

attfr§sa^  to  freeze. 

ait  fa,  to  get. 

att  for ga,  to  perish. 

att  gifva,  to  give. 

att  gripa,  to  grasp. 

att  gjuta,  to  pour. 

att  grata,  to  weep. 

att  gr'dfva,  to  dig. 

«/#  ga,  to  go. 

a<^  Ae/a,  to  be  called  ) 

(by  name).  ) 

aH  hjelpa,  to  help. 
att  holla,  to  hold. 
attjaga,  to  drive,  to  > 

hunt.  ) 

att  klifva,  to  climb. 
att  knipa,  to  pinch, 
a^^  knyta,  to  knit. 
G^^  komma,  to  come. 
«^^  krypa,  to  creep, 
a^^  kunna,  to  be  able 
g/^  Zfi,  to  laugh. 
att  lida,  to  suffer, 
a^^  ligga,  to  lie  down, 
fl/^  Ijuga,  to  lie. 
a^/  /a/a,  to  let,  allow. 
att  Idgga,  to  lay,  put  \ 

or    place    some-  > 

thing.  j 


Imperfect.  Past. 

lag  bar,     {  .o     * 
•^  °  (  baren, 

jag  borde,     bort, 

jag  drog, 

jag  drack. 


Present. 

jag  bar. 

jag  bor, 
jag  droger. 
jag  dricker, 

jag  drifver,  jag  dref, 

jagfinner,  jag  fann . 

jagflyter,  jagflot, 

jag  fly mr.  jag  flog, 

jctg  fryser.  jag  fros. 

jag  far.  jagflck. 
jag  for  gar. 

jag  gifver.  jag  gaf. 

jag  griper.  jag  grep. 

jag  gjuter.  jag  got. 

jag  grater.  jag  gret. 

jag  grdfver.  jag  grof. 

jag  gar.  jag  gick. 

jag  heter. 

jag  hjelper.  jag  Jialp. 

jag  hollar.  jog  ho  11. 

jagjager.  jag  jog. 


jag  klifver. 
jag  kniper, 
jag  knyter. 
jag  kommer, 
jag  krypcr. 
jag  kan. 
jag  ler. 
jag  lider. 
jag  ligger. 
jag  Ijuger, 
jag  later. 

jag  Idgger. 

10 


dragit. 

druckit. 
J  drifvit, 
I  drefven. 

funnit. 
{  flutit 

flogit. 
frusit, 
fatt. 
jag  forgick.forgatt. 
gifvit. 
gripit. 
gutit. 
grafif, 
grdfvit. 
gatt. 

jag  hette.      hetat. 

hulpit. 
hollit. 

jogit. 

klifvit. 

knipit. 

knutit. 

kommit. 

krupit. 

knnnat. 

lett. 

lidit. 

legat. 

Ijugit. 

latit. 


jag  kief, 
jag  knep. 
jag  knot, 
jag  kom. 
jag  krop. 
jag  kunde. 
jog  ^og. 
jag  led. 
jag  lag. 
jag  log. 
jag  Idt. 


jag  lade.       lagt. 


40 


Infinitive. 
att  njuta,  to  enjoy. 
aft  pipa,  to  whistle. 
att  rida,  to  ride. 
att  rifva,  to  tear. 
att  sCf  to  see. 
att  sitta,  to  sit. 
att  sjunga,  to  sing. 
att  sjunka,  to  sink. 
att  skjuta,  to  shoot. 
att  sicrifva,  to  write. 
att  skrika,  to  cry. 
att  spinna,  to  spin. 
att  springa^  to  spring. 
att  stiga,  to  ascend. 
att  skdra,  to  cut. 
att  stjdla,  to  steal. 
att  svdra,  to  swear. 
att  sthy  to  stand, 
att  sdtta,  to  set,  to 

place. 
att  taga,  to  take. 
att  tr'dffa,  to  hit. 
att  trdda,  to  step. 
att  tvingaj  to  force. 
att  vinntty  to  gain. 


Present. 
jag  njuter, 
jag  piper, 
jag  rider, 
jag  rifver, 
jag  ser. 
jag  sitter, 
jag  sjunger, 
jag  sjunker. 
jag  skjuter. 
jag  skrifver, 
jag  skriker, 
jag  spinner. 
,jag  springer, 
jag  stiger. 
jag  skdrer. 
jag  stjdler. 
jag  svdrer. 
jag  star. 


Imperfect. 
jag  njdt, 
jag  pep, 
jag  red. 
jag  ref. 
jag  sag. 
jag  satt. 
jag  sjdng. 
jag  sjonk. 
jag  skot. 
jag  skref, 
jag  skrek, 
jag  spann. 
jag  sprang, 
jag  steg. 
jag  skar, 
jag  stal, 
jag  svor. 
jag  stod. 


>  jag  sdtter,        jag  satte. 


jag  tager. 
jag  trdffer. 
jag  trdder. 
jag  tvinger. 
jag  vinner. 


att  veta,  to  know.        jag  vet. 

att  vara,  to  be.  jag  dr. 

att  vilja,  to  be  about. Jo'^  vil. 
att  vrida,  to  writhe,     jag  wider. 

att  vdxay  to  grow.        jag  vdxer.       jag  vdxte.  < 


jag  tog. 
jag  traf. 
jag  trad, 
jag  tvang. 
jag  vann. 

jog  viste. 

jag  var. 
jag  ville. 
jag  vred. 


Past. 
Tijutit, 
pipit, 
rideti,  rid. 
rifvit. 
sett, 
setat, 
sjungit, 
sjunkit, 
skjutit. 
skrifvit. 
skrikit, 
spunnit. 
sprungit, 
stigit. 
skurit. 
St  u  lit. 
svurit, 
stadt. 

satt. 

tagit. 

trdffad, 

trddt, 

tvungit, 

vunnit, 

vetat^ 

vist. 

varit. 

velat, 

vridit, 

vdxt. 


Observations  on  the  Verbs. 


§  115.  Obs.  1.  When  we  do  not  want  to  determine 
any  certain  person  or  persons  of  a  verb,  we  use  the  pronoun 
many  which,  on  that  account  (and  not  because  it  is  used 
before  impersonal  verbs,  which  it  never  can  be),  is  called 


VERBS.  41 

impersonal,  though,  strictly  speaking,  it  comprehends  all 
the  persons  ;  as,  man  kan  Idtt  se  det,  one  can  (or  may) 
easily  see  it ;  man  har  sagt  mig  det,  I  am  told  so ;  &c. 
This  is  also  the  case  in  Danish. 

§  116.  Obs.  2.  The  auxiliary  verbs  receive  often  a 
positive  signification,  by  the  stress  laid -on  them  in  pronun- 
ciation ;  thus,  for  instance,  jag  kan  ga,  jag  skall  blifvay 
may  be  explained  three  different  ways.  If  we  lay  the 
stress  on  kan  and  skall,  it  signifies  that  it  is  in  my  power 
[jag  kan)  to  go,  and  that  I  absolutely  must  {jag  skall) 
remain  ;  and  if  we  let  it  rest  on  ga  and  blifva,  the  mean- 
ing depends  then  on  the  signification  of  those  verbs;  lastly, 
we  may  lay  all  the  stress  on  jag,  if  we  wish  to  express  ivho 
it  is  that  kan  ga  or  skall  blifva.  This  may  also  be  said  of 
the  Danish. 

§  117.  Obs.  3.  Of  the  auxiliary  verbs  some  often  ap- 
pear by  themselves,  and  have  then  also  a  positive  sense  ; 
thus,  Jiafva  signifies  to  possess,  blifva,  to  remain,  kunna,  to 
know,  &/C.  ;  e.  g.  jag  kan  min  Idxa,  I  know  my  lesson  ; 
jag  blifver  i  London,  I  remain  in  London ;  lian  har  stora 
Egendomar,  he  possesses  large  estates ;  &c.  But  this 
practice  must  teach.     This  may  also  be  said  of  the  Danish. 

§  118.  Obs.  4.  As  att  fa,  to  get,  to  receive,  is  often 
used  as  an  auxiliary  verb  in  the  Swedish,  it  must  be  ob- 
served that  it  is  translated  into  English  in  different  ways,  as 
the  meaning  of  the  sentence  may  require  ;  thus,  jag  far 
der  hora  talas  am  honom,  we  translate,  I  will  there  hear 
him  spoken  of;  jag  far  ga  dit  om  jag  vill,  I  may  go 
there  if  I  like  ;  jag  fick  icke  gora  det,  I  was  not  permitted 
to  do  it ;  jag  jick  ej  Tid,  I  had  no  time ;  du  far  laf  att 
gora  det,  it  is  your  right  to  do  it ;  de  fick  deras  Penningar, 
they  received  their  money  ;   &/C. 

§  119.  Obs.  5.  When  a  whole  sentence,  or  an  infini- 
tive mode,  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  it  is  always  put  in  the 
singular  number  and  third  person  ;  as,  deras  fornojda  An- 


43  VERBS, 

sigter  var  dtt  som  fagnadc  mig,  (literally)  their  happy 
countenances  was  it  that  pleased  me  ;  at  dhka  silt  Fader^ 
nesland  dr  en  angendm  Pligty  to  love  one's  country  is  a 
joyful  duty  ;  for  these  phrases  may  be  resolved  thus  :  — 
det  var  deras  fdmojda  Ansigter  som  fdgnade  mig  ;  det  dr 
en  angendm  Pligt  att  dlska  sitt  Fddernesland ;  whereby  det 
becomes  the  nominative  in  the  sentence. 

§  120.  Obs.  6,  The  active  verbs  in  the  Swedish  ex- 
press their  passives  in  the  following  manners :  jag  dlskas^ 
jag  dr  dlskadf  and  jag  blifvcr  or  varder  dlskad;  of  which 
the  first,  or  jag  dlskas,  indicates  what  is  done  or  exists  in 
the  present  moment ;  the  second,  or  jag  dr  dlskad,  means 
what  has  already  existed  some  time  and  still  exists ;  and 
the  third,  jag  blifver  or  varder  dlskad ^  has  reference  to  a 
time  which  succeeds  the  present ;  thus,  if  I  s^y  jag  hatas, 
jag  vdrmesy  it  means,  that  I  am  now  in  the  actual  state  of 
being  hated  or  warmed  ;  jag  dr  hatad,  jag  dr  vdrmd^  im- 
plies, that  1  have  been  so  for  some  time,  and  still  continue 
so ;  and  jag  varder  hatad,  jag  blifver  vdrmd,  that  I  am  to 
be  so.  But  to  explain  it  by  another  example,  let  us  take 
the  verb  sticka,  to  sting,  to  stab.  If  we  want  to  express 
that  two  persons  are  now  in  the  act  of  being  stung,  we  say, 
de  stickas;  if  they  are  stung  already,  de  dro  stuckne ;  and 
if  they  are  to  be  stung,  de  blifva  stuckne.  And  in  the  im- 
perfect tense,  jag  dlskades  means,  I  was  loved  ;  jag  var 
dlskad,  I  was  and  had  been  loved  ;  and  jag  vardt  or  blef 
dlskad,  I  became  loved  (not  having  been  so  before). 

§  121.  Obs.  7.  For  the  sake  of  perspicuity  the  com- 
pounded passive  forms  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  the 
simple.  I  will  show  the  necessity  of  this  by  an  example. 
The  passive  of  the  verb  att  sla,  to  beat,  i^jag  slas,  imperf. 
jag  slogs;  but  there  is  also  a  demi-passive  or  deponent 
verb,  att  slass,  to  fight,  which  has  the  imperfect  tense  the 
same  as  the  other,  or  jag  slogs.  Now  if  I  was  to  say,  Bi/s- 
sarna  slogos,    it    might   either  signify   that  the  Russians 


VERBS. 


43 


fought,  or  that  the  Russians  were  defeated  ;  we  therefore 
in  the  latter  case  use  varda  or  blifva  ;  as,  Ryssarne  slogos 
tappert  vid  Svefisksund,  men  blefvo  slagne,  the  Russians 
fought  bravely  at  Svensksund,  but  were  defeated.* 

§  122.  Obs.  8.  Of  the  impersonal  verbs,  as  well  in 
Danish  as  in  Swedish,  some  appear  in  an  active,  and  others 
in  a  passive  form ;  as,  det  regnar,  it  rains,  det  dagas,  it 
begins  to  dawn,  of  the  verbs  att  regna,  to  rain,  and  att 
dagas,  to  dawn.  It  must,  however,  be  observed,  that  verbs 
of  all  kinds  may  be  used  as  impersonal  in  the  Swedish,  in 
the  same  manner  as  they  are  in  the  English  ;  as,  der  gick 
et  Ryckte,  there  was  a  rumor  ;  det  syntes  sa,  it  appeared  so ; 
de  saga  mycket  som  icke  dr  sant,  they  say  much  that  is  not 
true  ;  man  kunde  ej  komma  in,  one  could  not  get  in  ;  &c. 

§  123.  Obs,  9.  As  imperatives  not  only  imply  a  com- 
mand, but  also  frequently  a  wish,  or  exhortation,  —  as,  bevara 
Gud  viir  Kungy  God  save  our  king ;  strid  Hjelte  strid, 
fight,  hero,  fight,  —  we  use  the  sign  of  the  future  tense  when 
we  wish  to  enforce  a  command  ;  as,  dii  skall  arbeta,  thou 
shalt  work  ;  Ni  skolen  gora  det,  you  shall  {or  must)  do  it. 

§  124.  Obs.  10.  The  sign  of  the  infinitive  mode  {att) 
is  often  left  out  in  the  Swedish,  where  in  the  English  it 
must  be  expressed ;  thus,  we  write  correctly,  jag  bor  gora 
det,  I  ought  to  do  it ;  jag  ser  Idsa,  I  see  to  read  ;  &lc, 

§  125.  Obs.  11.  The  forms  of  the  participles  may  be 
learned  from  the  paradigms.  Here  I  will  only,  the  better 
to  distinguish,  them  to  beginners,  observe,  that  the  present 
participles,  both  active  and  passive,  occur  after  the  auxiliary 
verbs  vara,  varda,  and  blifva^  and  the  past  participles  after 
hafva ;  as,  jag  dr,  jag  varder,  jag  blifver  hatande  and 
hatad,  I  am,   I  will  be  hating  and  hated  ;  but  jag  hafver 

*  All  the  difference  I  can  trace  between  varda  and  blifva  is,  that  varda 
seems  to  be  used  when  a  greater  emphasis  is  required,  and  that  it  implies 
a  stronger  assertion  than  blifva.  Besides,  it  never  occurs  in  a  positive 
sense,  as  blifva  does,  but  always  as  an  auxiliary  verb. 

10* 


44  VERBS. 

hataty  I  have  hated,  jag  hafver  hatats,  I  have  been  hated  ; 
det  dr  gjordt,  it  is  done ;  jag  har  gjort  det,  I  have  done 
it  ;  &/C. 

§  126.  Obs.  12.  The  present  active  participle  occurs 
often  in  the  English  where  the  Svv^edish  does  not  admit  of 
it.  We  can  neither  begin  a  sentence  with  it,  nor  use  it 
immediately  after  another  verb ;  thus,  if  we  would  translate 
'*  having  no  money  to  lay  out/'  and  **  I  cannot  help  admir- 
ing him,"  we  could  not  say,  hafvande  inga  Penningar  att 
Idgga  ut ;  jag  kan  ej  underlata  beundrande  Iionom ;  but 
must  in  the  former  case  begin  the  sentence  with  a  particle, 
and  in  the  latter,  place  the  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode ;  as, 
sasom  jag  har  inga  Penningar  att  Idgga  ut ;  jag  kan  ej 
underlata  att  beundra  honom.  Neither  can  we  use  it  after 
any  of  the  particles,  as  is  often  the  case  in  English.  The 
following  expressions  should  thus  be  rendered  into  Swed- 
ish : —  After  having  done  that,  I  came  home,  sedan  jag 
hade  gjort  det,  kom  jag  hem  ;  I  am  prevented  from  doing 
liyjag  dr  hindradfran  att  gora  det;  I  saw  it  whilst  I  was 
sitting  there,  jag  sag  det  medan  jag  satt  der ;  &c.  This 
participle  occurs,  however,  sometimes  with  the  preposition 
i  (in)  before  it;  as,  han  ofvergar  mig  i  talande,  he  excels 
me  in  speaking ;  but  even  here  I  think  it  more  correct  to 
use  the  infinitive  mode,  although  it  might  be  alleged  that 
the  verb  so  used  is  no  longer  a  participle  but  a  noun.  This 
participle  is  always  used  when  it  could  not  be  exchanged 
for  the  infinitive  mode  without  altering  the  meaning  of  the 
sentence ;  as,  han  stod  der  talande,  he  stood  there  speaking  ; 
han  stod  der  att  tala  would  be,  he  stood  there  in  order  to 
speak.  Besides,  it  implies  a  longer  continuation  of  the 
present,  and  is  more  descriptive  than  the  infinitive  mode  ;  as, 
jag  horde  honom  talande,  I  heard  him  speaking,  means  more 
than,  jag  horde  honom  tala;  but  in  this  case  it  is  a  verbal 
adjective,  and  may,  as  such,  even  begin  a  sentence ;  as, 
talande  stod  han  der,  &c.     This  participle  is  further  in- 


VERBS.  45 

fleeted  with  an  5  in  the  genitive  case ;  as,  en  iaiandes,  en 
dhkandeSy  which  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  gerun- 
dial  forms.  The  difference  between  the  active  gerund  and 
the  participle  may  be  learned  from  the  following  example :  — 
han  motte  mig  ridandes,  he  met  me  riding  ;  here  ridandes 
is  the  gerund  and  refers  to  han ;  but  if  we  say,  han  motte 
mig  ridande,  then  ridande  is  the  participle,  and  refers  to 


§  127.  Obs,  13.  Should  the  preposition  till  (to),  which 
is  the  sign  of  the  passive  gerund,  not  add  an  s  to  the  par- 
ticiple when  it  stands  before  it,  it  remains  active,  and  is 
best  translated  by  the  infinitive  mode;  as,  jag  ndmner 
det  till  bevisande  of  hans  heder,  I  mention  it  to  prove  his 
honor. 

§  128.  Obs.  14.  The  auxiliary  verb  hafva  is  often 
suppressed  (even  in  writing)  when  no  confusion  in  the 
sentence  arises  from  it,  which  in  the  English  in  similar 
cases  would  be  unavoidable ;  as,  om  han  hatat  mig  sa 
sJculle  jag  glomt  det,  for  om  han  hade  hatat  mig  sa  skulls 
jag  hafva  glomt  det,  if  he  (had)  hated  me,  I  should  (have) 
forgotten  it ;  omjag  endast  haft  tid,  for  omjag  endast  hade 
haft  tid,  if  I  only  (had)  had  time ;  &/C.  Besides,  hafva  is 
contracted  into  /ta,  and  hafver  into  har,  which  is  also  ad- 
mitted both  in  speaking  and  writing. 

§  129.  Obs.  15.  In  the  present  tense  of  the  verb  vara 
the  contraction  (in  speaking)  is  still  greater,  for  here  often 
one  letter  only  is  retained  ;  as j  jag  a  glad  att  de  a  hdr,  for 
jag  dr  glad  att  de  dro  hdr ;  and  in  the  imperfect  tense  we 
shall  hear  va  used  for  all  the  persons  ;  as,  jag,  du,  han  va 
glad  att  vi,  I,  de  va  der,  I,  &/C.,  was  glad  that  we,  &/C., 
were  there.  In  the  same  manner  we  say  blir  for  blifver 
(which  also  appears  in  writing);  ska  for  shall;  skull  for 
skulle ;  &c.  The  other  verbs  suffer  more  or  less  contrac- 
tion in  speaking. 


46  PARTICLES. 

CHAPTER.  IX. 

PARTICLES. 

§130.  The  Swedish  particles  are  of  four  kinds;  viz. 
adverbs,  conjunctions,  prepositions,  and  interjections. 

^  131.  An  adverb  is  a  part  of  speech  joined  to  other 
words  to  express  the  quality  or  circumstances  of  them  ;  and 
as  these  vary,  the  adverbs  are  of  different  kinds.  Some 
have  relation  to  time,  others  to  place,  probability,  doubt, 
quantity,  &>c. ;  as,  nu,  now  ;  hemma,  at  home ;  Aar,  here ; 
troligenj  likely;  om,  if;  myckct,  much;  &c. 

^  132.  Of  the  adverbs,  a  few  admit  of  comparison  ;  as, 
ofttty  often,  of  tare,  oftasl ;  fort,  quickly,  foriare,  fortast; 
endeh,  partly,  merendels,  mdstendels, 

§  133.  When  adjectives  are  used  as  adverbs,  they  al- 
ways appear  in  the  neuter  gender  :  as,  naturligt,  naturally  ; 
hogt,  highly ;  hastigt,  hastily  ;  and  sometimes  adverbs  are 
formed  from  them  by  adding  ligen ;  as,  hogligen,  storligen. 
If  the  adjectives  end  with  tig  (as  naturllg)^  only  en  is 
added  ;  as,  jiaturligen,  &c. 

^  134.  Conjunctions  join  words  and  sentences  together ; 
as,  ochj  and:  ocA:,  also  ;  ndmligen^  namely;  mm,  but;  eller, 
or ;  mitingen,  either ;  hvarken,  neither  ;  fy,  for ;  ehuru, 
although ;  &c. 

^  135.  The  prepositions  are  words  set  before  nouns  or 
pronouns,  to  express  the  relations  of  persons,  places,  and 
things  to  each  other ;  as,  jcfg  hor  ga  till  honom,  I  ought  to 
go  to  him ;  such  are  under ,  under ;  ofvcr,  over ;  pa  and 
uppa,  on  or  upon  ;  efter^  'after ;  fran,  from  ;  i  and  uii, 
in;  &c. 

§  136.  Of  the  interjections,  or  words  that  express  any 
sudden  emotion  of  the  mind,  from  the  sensation  either  of 
pleasure   or   pain,  the   following  are  the   most  common  : 


PARTICLES.  47 

O!  add  O!  alas!  hn!  (exclamation  of  despair) ;/«?/;  /  (of 
horror);  oj!  (of  pain)  ;  si!  Jo!  ve  !  woe!  ha!  ho!  fy! 
fie  !  &€. 

Observations  on  the  Parlicles,  some  of  loJiich  have  no  Cor^ 
respondents  in  the  English. 

^  137.  Sa  is  the  sign  of  the  subsequent  meaning  of  the 
sentence  ;  as,  om  jag  kan  sa  vill  jag,  if  I  can  I  will ;  and 
always  places  the  nominative  after  its  verb  ;  as,  ndr  han  kom 
dit  sa  sade  mannen  till  hononij  not,  sa  mannen  sade,  when  he 
came  there  the  man  said  to  him.* 

^  138,  The  affirmative  particle  sannerligen-y  indeed, 
verily,  is  negative  when  the  following  nominative  stands 
before  its  verb;  as,  sannerligen  jag  kan,  indeed  I  cannot ; 
but  affirmative,  if  vice  versa ;  as,  sannerligen  kaiijag,  indeed 
I  can  :  and  if  a  negative  particle  is  added  to  the  sentence, 
it  does  not  alter  this  rule,  but  only  strengthens  the  asser- 
tion ;  as,  sannerligen  jag  kan  icke,  indeed  I  cannot ;  san- 
nerligen kan  jag  icke,  indeed  I  can.  The  place  of  the 
nominative  and  its  verb  should  therefore  be  particularly 
attended  to,  as  the  meaning  of  the  whole  sentence  often 
depends  on  it. 

§  139.  Der,  there,  and  har,  here,  signify  the  being  in 
a  place ;  dit  and  hit,  thither  and  hither,  the  going  to  and 
coming  from  a  place ;  as,  han  Hr  hdr,  he  is  here  ;  kom  hit, 
come  hither ;  han  stod  der,  he  stood  there ;  han  gick  dit, 
he  went  thither. 

§  140.  Ait,  which  is  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  mode, 
signifies  also  the  same  as  that ;  as,  de  hoppas  att  han  vill 
komma,  they  hope  that  he  will  come.f 

^141.  The  interrogative  particle /w,  having  no  corre- 
spondent in  the  English,  is  there  best  expressed  by  giving 

*  Sa  is  often  suppressed,  but  the  construction  is  still  the  same  j  as,  ndr 
jag  kom,  sade  han,  not  han  sade. 

t  The  pronoun  det  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  att;  as,  de  hofpas  del 
han  vill  komma,  &c. 


48  PARTICLES. 

the  meaning  the  turn  of  an  affirmative  question;  ^Sj  jog 
kan  ju  icke  del  1  is  not  that  impossible  for  me  ?  Han  dr 
ju  stor?  is  he  not  great?  But  when  it  precedes  an  adjec- 
tive in  the  comparative  degree,  it  answers  to  the ;  as,  ju  mer 
desto  bdltrcj  the  more  the  better. 

^  142.  Vdl  is  another  interrogative  particle  without  a 
correspondent,  and  musf  be  rendered  by  indeed,  I  suppose, 
I  liope^  &c.,  as  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  may  require ; 
as,  det  Icunde  da  val,  that  you  could,  indeed  ;  Jian  'dr  val 
icke  hemma  ?  he  is  not  at  home,  I  suppose  ?  Iian  dr  val  hdr  1 
he  is  here,  I  hope?  Vdl  signifies  also  welll  and  for  the 
interjection  loelll  the  Swedish  language  has  na  vdl!  vdlan! 

§  143.  Nog,  enough,  must  also  sometimes  be  rendered 
by  indeed;  as,  han  vill  nog  gdra  det,  om  du  her  honom,  he 
will  indeed  {or  certainly)  do  it,  if  you  tell  him. 

^  144.  The  interrogative  particle  monne  is  used  in  plain 
questions  ;  as,  monne  det  dr  sant  1  do  you  think  it  is  true  ? 
monne  han  honimer  ?  is  it  expected  that  he  will  come  ?  &c. 

^  145.  Between  ja  andjo,  which  are  both  translated  by 
yes,  this  difference  is  to  be  observed ;  that  jo  is  used  after 
questions  in  which  there  is  a  negative  particle;  as,  var  han  ei 
der  ?  was  he  not  there  ?  jo ;  and  ja  where  there  is  no 
such  particle  ;   as,  kom  han  dit  ?  did  he  come  hither  ?  ja. 

<5>  146.  Qvar  is  variously  translated,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  examples  :  dr  nagot  qvar?  is  any  thing 
left  ?  han  salt  qvar,  he  kept  sitting  ;  dr  hon  dnnu  qvar  7  is 
she  still  here?  Doktoren  hlefqvar,  the  doctor  remained;  &c. 

^  147.  The  inseparable  particles,  such  as  he,  for,  miss, 
0,  an,  &/C.,  in  besird,  to  bestrew,  rordom,  prejudice,  miss- 
fdrstand,  misunderstanding,  olycklig,  unhappy,  smtaga, 
to  accept,  are  easily  learned  by  practice. 

^  148.  The  following  words,  which  might  be  called 
demi-adverbs,  are  formed  by  joining  a  particle  to  a  noun 
either  in  the  nominative  or  genitive  case.  They  are  all 
such  as  constantly  occur :  i  morgon,  to-morrow  ;  i  ofver- 
morgon,  the  day  after  to-morrow ;  om  bord,  on  board  ;  om 


NUMERALS. 


49 


sondagy  next  Sunday  ;  i  mondogs^  last  Monday  ;  i  fjoly  last 
year  :  at  are,  or  at  ares,  next  year  ;  i  viir,  next  spring  ;  i  va- 
ras,  last  spring ;  till  hands^  at  hand ;  ////  lianda^  to  hand ; 
efter  hand,  little  by  little ;  ofver  hufvud,  upon  an  average ; 
till  sjos,  at  sea  ;  utom  lands,  abroad ;  inom  lands,  within 
one's  country  ;  &c. 

Numerals. 

§  149.  There  are  two  kinds  of  numerals,  the  indefinite 
and  the  definite.  The  indefinite  (commonly  called  cardi- 
nal) leave  the  following  noun  in  the  indefinite  state;  the 
definite  (or  ordinal)  require  it  to  be  definite  ;  *  as,  en  gong, 
one  time ;  forsta  gongen,  first  time  ;  sexton  ar,  sixteen 
years ;  sextonde  aret,  sixteenth  year. 

The  Indefinite  or  Cardinal, 


En, 

1. 

Elfva, 

11. 

Tjugoen 

9 

21. 

Tva, 

2. 

Tolf, 

12. 

Trettio, 

30. 

Tre, 

3. 

Tretton, 

13. 

Fortio, 

40. 

Fyra, 

4. 

Fjorton, 

14. 

Femtio, 

50. 

Fern, 

5. 

Fern  tony 

15. 

Sextio, 

60. 

Sex, 

6. 

Sexton, 

10. 

SJuttio, 

70. 

Sju, 

7. 

Sjutton, 

17. 

Attotio, 

80. 

Atta, 

8. 

Aderton, 

18. 

Nittio, 

90. 

Nie, 

9. 

Nit  ton, 

19. 

Hundrade, 

100. 

Tie, 

10. 

Tjugo, 

20. 

Tiisende> 

,     1000. 

The  Definite 

or  Ordinal, 

Forsta, 

1st. 

Sjefte, 

6th, 

Andra, 

2d. 

Sjunde, 

7th. 

Tredje, 

3d. 

Attonde, 

8th, 

Fjerde, 

4th. 

Nionde, 

9th. 

Femte, 

5th. 

Tionde, 

10th, 

*  Except  when  a  pronoun  is  used  before  them,  or  when  a  noun,  pronoun, 
or  participle;  that  belongs  to  the  same  sentence,  precedes  them  in  the  geni- 
tive case  ;  as,  i  mitt  sextonde  ar,  in  my  sixteenth  year  j  Konungens  andra 
Son,  the  king's  second  son ;  for  in  these  cases  the  definite  numerals  are 
under  the  same  rules  as  adjectives;  and  leave  the  following  substantive  in 
the  indefinite  state. 


50 


DIVISIONS 

OF    TIME. 

Elfte, 

nth. 

Tjuguforsta, 

21st. 

Tolfte, 

12th. 

TrettioJide, 

30th. 

TnittomU, 

13th. 

Fortionde, 

40th. 

Fjortondc, 

14th. 

Ftmtionde, 

50th. 

Femtondcy 

15th. 

Sextionde, 

60th, 

SexUmde, 

16th. 

Sjuttionde, 

70th. 

Sjuttnnde, 

17th. 

Attionde, 

80th. 

Adertonde, 

18th. 

Nittionde, 

90th. 

Nittonde, 

19th. 

Himdradde, 

100th. 

Tjugonde, 

20th. 

Tusende, 

1000th. 

§  150.     Divisions  of  Time. 

o  o 

Ett    Artiisen,    a    thousand       Ett  Arhundra,  a  century, 
years.  Ett  Ar,  a  year. 

Var,  spring.  Host,  autumn. 

Sommar,  summer.  Vinter,  winter. 


Jcmimri, 

January. 

Februari,  or  Gojcmauad, 

February. 

Mars,  or  Varmanad, 

March. 

April,  or  Grdsmanad, 

April. 

Maj,  or  Blomstermanad, 

May. 

Juni,  or  Sommarmanad, 

June. 

Juli,  or  Homanad, 

July. 

Augusti,  or  Skordemanad, 

August. 

September,  or  Hostmanad, 

September. 

Oclctober,  or  Slagtmanad, 

October. 

November,  or  Vintermanad, 

November. 

December,  or  Julmanad, 

December. 

Sondag,          Sunday. 

Tors  dag,       Thursday. 

Mondag,         Monday. 

Fredag,         Friday. 

Tisdag,          Tuesday. 

Lor  dag,         Saturday. 

Onsdag,         Wednesday. 

Natt,  night. 

Middo 

g,  noon. 

Midnatt,  midnight. 

Eftermiddag,  afternoon. 

Morgon,  morning. 

Solens 

nedergang,  or  Sol- 

Solens  uppgang,  sunrise. 

bergningen,  sunset. 

Dag,  day. 

Aft  on. 

evening. 

Formiddag,  forenoon. 


Timma,  hour. 


Mmut,  minute. 


Sekund,  second. 


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